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COMMERCIAL 


GEOGRAPHY 


BY 


WALTER  H.  OLIN,  M.  S., 

Superintendent  of  City  Schools, 
Ottawa,  Kansas. 


CRANE  &  COMPANY,   PUBLISHERS 

TOPEKA,   KANSAS 

1902 


tif 


.0^ 


^TM 


FRAI 


Copyrighted  by  Walter  H.  Olin,  1901. 


Copyrighted  by  Walter  H.  Olin,  1902. 


PREFACE 


This  work  is  designed  as  a  guide  to  the  study  of  practical  facts  in  Commercial  Geography. 

It  is  prepared  especially  for  the  geography  work  of  grades  seven  or  eight  in  the  common  schools  of 
our  land. 

Care  has  been  taken  to  present  facts  and  definitions  in  a  simple  form  and  in  a  correlated  manner. 

Each  illustration  has  been  selected  to  teach  either  a  geographical  or  a  commercial  fact.  The 
illustrations  are  new,  and  will  interest  the  student,  fixing  the  truth  they  teach. 

Part  I  classifies  commerce  and  enumerates  the  aids  to  commerce.  Each  chapter  closes  with  a 
question  summary  that  will  prove  helpful  to  both  teacher  and  pupil. 

Part  II  shows  the  author's  plan  of  presenting  a  commercial  trip.  It  combines  description  and 
information  in  such  a  way  that  the  pupil  feels  he  is  making  the  journey  himself.  It  teaches  the  art 
of  travel  and  the  great  value  of  close  observation.  This  trip  is  carefully  chosen  over  new  routes  of 
travel,  and  incidentally  teaches  many  important  commercial  and  geographical  facts.  It  shows  teach- 
ers a  practical  plan  for  similar  trips  to  our  gTeatest  manufacturing  and  commercial  centers. 

Make  the  work  as  real  and  as  practical  as  possible.  This  develops  thoughtful  research,  strengthens 
memory,  and  quickens  observation,  while  it  gives  general  knowledge  along  valuable  geographical  lines. 

Part  III  presents  miscellaneous  facts  of  commerce  and  geography  intended  to  encourage  labora- 
tory work  along  practical  lines.  The  author  believes  it  to  be  one  of  the  most  helpful  features  of  the 
book.  Teachers  are  urged  to  use  this  part  of  the  work  as  their  environments  would  suggest  and  time 
will  permit. 

The  world  map  is  prepared  expressly  to  show  the  commercial  world  in  the  present  condition  of 
trade,  with  railroad,  cable  and  steamer  lines  of  communication. 

To  simplify  the  International  Date  Line  problem,  the  Prime  Meridian  is  made  the  unit  of  divi- 
sion on  the  Mercator  projection  plan. 

The  continents  are  located  to  give  the  principal  southern  trade  routes,  even  though  it  cuts  the  north- 
ern part  of  Siberia  —  unknown  to  commerce  —  out  of  the  map. 

Cities  are  numbered  according  to  their  commercial  rank  in  1900.  ISTames  are  found  in  an  accom- 
panying index,  but  do  not  appear  on  the  map.  All  cities  of  150,000  population  or  more  are  located 
and  ranked  on  this  map. 

Being  prepared  for  constant  use,  the  map  is  detached  from  the  text  and  made  of  sufiicient  size  to 
clearly  show  all  elements  of  the  map. 

Hoping  that  the  youth  of  our  land  may  be  led  to  carefully  study  the  problems  of  location,  trade 
and  invention,  and  their  intimate  relation  to  products,  occupations,  and  the  industries  of  nations,  the 
author  presents  this  volume  to  aid  in  this  work.  The  youth  are  the  hope  of  any  nation.  The  per- 
petuity of  our  institutions,  the  commercial  interests  of  our  nation,  and  the  responsibilities  of  state, 
rest  with  our  school  children  of  to-day.     Therefore  the  author  dedicates  this  work  to  the  school  boys 

and  girls  of  America. 

The  Attthoe. 

(8) 

115412 


PREFACE. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


I  DEBiRE  to  state  that  valuable  assistance  has  been 
given  in  preparing  this  work  from  the  following  sources : 
Statesman's  Year  Book,  Consular  Reports,  Appleton's, 
Johnson's,  Student's  and  the  Manifold  Cyclopedias  ;  ar- 
ticles in  the  Forum,  Popular  Science  Monthly,  AVorld's 
Work,  Scribner,  Review  of  Reviews,  McClure,  Cosmopoli- 
tan, Everybody's,  Self-Culture,  and  National  magazines ; 
Guyot's  Physical,  Frye's,  Redway's,  Tarr  &  McMurray's> 
Dean  &  Davis's  Inductive,  Rand  &  McNally's,  Morton's 
Political,  and  Chisholm's  and  Adams's  Commercial  Geog- 
raphies; The  Northern  Steamship  Co.,  the  International 
Navigation  Co.,  the  agents  of  the  N.  Y.  K.  line  in  Syd- 
ney, Australia,  and  Manila,  P.  I.,  the  Santa  Fe  R.  R.,  the 
New  York  Central  R.  R.,  the  Boston  &  Albany  R.  R., 
Mo.  Pac.  R.  R.,  the  Canadian  Pacific  R.  R.,  the  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Co.,  Wells  &  Fargo  Express  Co.,  St. 
Paul  and  Tacoma  Lumber  Co.  ;  publications  of  the  Amer- 
ican Geographical  Society,  "The  State,"  The  Pathfinder, 
Western  School  Journal,  Scientific  American,  Christian 


Herald ;  Departments  of  State,  Navy  and  Treasury,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. ;  Commercial  Museum,  Philadelphia,  Penn. ; 
Mr.  O.  P.  Austin,  chief  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Statistics;  Mr. 
Wm.  P.  Wilson ;  Mr.  S.  I.  Kimball,  Gen'l  Supt.  Life-Sav- 
ing  Service  ;  Mr.  Arthur  McMichael,  Chief  Clerk  Dept.  of 
State;  Mr.  Geo.  H.  Daniels;  Mr.  N.  M.  Brooks,  Supt. 
Foreign  Mails ;  Mr.  E.  C.  Leedy ;  Mr.  S.  M.  Campbell ; 
Mr.  Jno.  F.  Scott ;  Mr.  D.  G.  Robertson  ;  Mr.  T.  E.  Fisher ; 
Mr.  J.  M.  Morrison;  Mr.  W.  M.  Stewart;  Mr.  E.  C.  Che- 
noweth ;  Mr.  F.  D.  Coburn  ;  Mr.  AV.  H.  Martin ;  Mr.  A. 
B.  Johnson,  Chief  Clerk  U.S.  Lighthouse  Board ;  the  U.  S. 
Fish  Commission  ;  J.  F.  Moser,  Commander  U.  S.  Navy  ; 
the  Armstrong  Cork  Co. ;  Glucose  Sugar  Refining  Co. ; 
Kellerman's  Botany  ;  American  Inventions  and  Inventors ; 
Stories  of  Industry  and  Cram's  Atlas.  Also,  special  ac- 
knowledgments to  Underwood  &  Underwood,  Ottawa, 
Kansas,  for  the  use  of  many  of  their  copyrighted  views ; 
Parke,  Davis  &  Co. ;  Paris  Medicine  Co. ;  McCormick 
Harvester  Co. ;  and  Mrs.  Winnie  C.  Olin. 


A  Patriotic  Appeal. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 


Part  I. — Aids  to  Commerce 7 

Part  II.  —A  Commercial  Trip  Around  the  World 71 

Part  III. — Facts  for  Laboratory  Work 147 


INTRODUCTION 


In  these  days  of  wonderful  inventions,  great  scientific  discoveries,  and  expanding  commercial 
interests,  the  student  of  Geography  finds  a  fourth  division  of  the  general  subject  necessary  —  Com- 
mercial Geography.  The  commercial  importance  and  needs  of  our  nation  demand  that  the  school 
children  of  to-day  be  led  to  study  this  new  division.  Its  information  will  be  of  practical  benefit,  and 
\yill  lead  the  student  to  see  how  close  and  vital  must  be  our  commercial  relations  with  all  other  commer- 
cial or  trading  nations.  Therefore,  this  new  division  should  be  given  equal  importance  in  study  with 
the  other  three  divisions  —  Mathematical,  Physical,  and  Political. 

In  pursuing  the  study  of  Commercial  Geography,  both  teacher  and  pupils  will  find  a  general  scrap- 
book,  railroad  and  steamer  guides  interesting  and  helpful.  A  very  serviceable  scrap-book  can  be  made 
of  cloth,  the  size  of  this  geography.  Make  as  many  sheets  or  pages  as  you  desire,  or  that  can  be  con- 
veniently handled.  When  this  book  gets  full,  make  others,  but  have  some  clear  plan  of  indexing  each 
volume.  The  railroad  and  steamer  guides  can  be  obtained  by  addressing  the  general  passenger  agents 
of  the  various  lines.  I  have  always  found  them  courteous,  and  glad  to  help  along  in  this  work. 
Through  the  station  or  steamer  agent  in  your  own  city  or  town,  much  valuable  printed  matter  can  be 
procured.  Many  dull  or  listless  students  can  be  energized  by  this  method  of  study,  and  set  to  earnest 
work  when  other  means  fail.  It  seems  fascinating  to  the  boys  and  girls,  ^nd  therefore  interests  them, 
because  it  is  useful  and  "  up-to-date  "  in  data  given. 

Frequently,  many  very  beautiful,  interesting  and  instnictive  pictures  can  be  obtained  from  the 
various  transportation,  companies  in  this  and  other  countries,  simply  for  the  asking. 

This  is  the  "laboratory  method"  applied  to  Geography,  and  I  commend  it  to  the  teachers  of 
this  important  and  essential  branch  of  school  studies  in  both  city  grades  and  country  districts. 

This  work  is  grouped  in  chapters,  and  should  therefore  be  studied  by  topics  and  not  by  pages. 

The  book  is  but  a  brief  treatise  of  a  very  large  subject,  and  is  intended  only  as  a  manual  or  outline 
to  direct  students  in  their  study  of  this  subject  and  assist  teachers  in  their  assignment  and  recitation 
of  lessons. 

The  most  expensive  features  in  all  geographies  are  the  maps,  and  as  a  good  outline  wall  map  and 
an  authentic  atlas  should  be  in  each  school-room  where  advanced  work  in  geography  is  expected,  con- 
tinent and  national  maps  are  omitted  in  this  work.  In  a  pocket  in  back  cover  of  the  book  will  be  found 
a  commercial  map  of  the  world,  showing  the  greatest  trade  routes  by  land  and  by  water,  and  all  great 
commercial  cities,  as  well  as  the  most  influential  agencies  affecting  trade  routes.  This  map  is  on 
the  Mercator  projection  plan,  but  with  different  division  lines  from  those  shown  in  previous  maps, 
that  the  question  of  the  International  Date  Line  may  be  simplified.  As  this  map  must  be  used  al- 
most daily,  it  is  placed  on  substantial  cloth,  and  should,  with  careful  usage,   last  as  long  as  the 

accompanying  book. 

W,  H.  OLIN. 
Ottawa,  Kansas,  October  1,  1901. 

(6) 


COT^TEKTS  OF  PART  I. 

Page. 

Chapter  I. —  Commerce 9 

Question  Summary 13 

Chapter  II. — Food  Commerce 14 

Question  Summary ^ 19 

Chapter  III. —  Overland  Commerce 21 

Question  Summary 23 

Chapter  IV. — Railroad  Commerce 24 

Question  Summary .,,.... 32 

Chapter  V. — Important  Aids  to  Commerce  . .  • « 33 

Question  Summary .o  ........ .o .....  o. 40 

Chapter  VI. — Building  a  Modern  Steamer 42 

Question  Summary , 47 

Chapter  VII. — An  Ocean  Voyage  in  the  St.  Louis =  ....... 48 

Question  Summary 53 

Chapter  VIII. —  Our  Consular  Service  • 53 

Question  Summary 55 

Chapter  IX. — The  Light  Stations  of  Our  Nation ...,.,., 56 

Question  Summary 63 

Chapter  X. — The  Life-Saving  Service  of  the  United  States 64 

Question  Summary 67 

Chapter  XI. —  Great  Canals  of  Commerce 68 

Question  Summary 70 


d) 


PART  I. 

AIDS  TO  COMMERCE 


(7) 


School  Children  of  America 


(8) 


Christiana's  Largest  Market,  Norway. 


OLIN'S  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  L 


Commerce . 


CoMMEKCE  is  an  interchange  of  various  produc- 
tions and  manufiictures  between  individuals,  com- 
munities or  nations.  If  the  interchange  be  between 
individuals  or  communities  in  the  same  nation,  it 
is  called  domestic  commerce;  when  between  indi- 
viduals or  communities  in  different  nations  or 
governments  of  nations,  it  is  called  foreign  com- 
merce. 

The  farmer  raises  his  grain,  fruit  and  stock  on 
his  farm  and  sells  the  same  to  the  commission 
merchant,  storekeeper  and  stockman,  who  in  turn 


sells  the  grain,  fruit  or  stock  either  to  consumers 
or  large  dealers.  In  this  way  commerce  had  its 
origin.  The  manufacturer  generally  gravitates  to- 
ward that  locality  that  furnishes  good  facilities 
naturally  for  power  and  water-supply.  Here  cap- 
ital invests  itself  and  a  commercial  city  springs 
into  being.  Because  of  its  abundant  water-supply 
coming  from  its  hills  and  the  vast  quantities  of 
building-stone  resting  within  these  hills,  Xew  Eng- 
land has  always  been  the  center  of  a  great  manu- 
facturing industry.  This  fact,  together  with  its 
good  harbor  and  proximity  to  these  manufacturing 
plants,  has  made  Boston  the  channel  through  which 
manufactured  goods  of  'New  England  have  reachel 


(9) 


10 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


foreign  trade;  hence  Boston  early  became  a  stra- 
tegic seaport  and  commercial  harbor. 

The  ocean  harbor,  geographical  location  and  the 
Erie  Canal  made  New  York  a  logical  metropolis, 
led  industries  to  invest  themselves  and  trade  routes 
to  center  there.  Pittsburg's  almost  inexhaustible 
coal-beds  gave  her  logical  precedence  in  the  iron 
and  steel  industries.  Chicago  through  her  natural 
advantages  and  location  gained  the  trade  and  in- 
dustries that  make  her  the  greatest  inland  mart  in 
the  world  to-day. 

The  vast  fields  of  cotton  in  the  South,  with  her 
good  fuel  and  water-supply,  are  to-day  inviting 
the  manufacturer,  and  millions  of  dollars  are  being 
invested  in  mills  to  work  up  the  cotton  in  fields 
adjacent  to  these  cotton  mills,  saving  the  expense 
of  a  long  haul.  This  land  is  adapted  to  cotton 
culture,  the  climate  congenial,  and  hence  cotton 
has  become  a  staple  crop  in  these  Southern  States. 
This,  together  with  the  ore  and  coal  in  the  moun- 
tains near  at  hand  and  an  abundant  water-supply, 
is  planting  large  commercial  centers  all  through 
our  South-land. 

Then  we  learn  that  the  physiography  of  a  coun- 
try has  much  to  do  in  locating  trading  marts  and 
manufacturing  centers. 

An  agricultural  region  may  maintain  a  thriving 
town  or  city,  but  a  city  of  commercial  importance 
must  have  good  connection  by  rail  or  water  with 
the  commercial  world  in  order  to  thrive  and  pros- 
per. 

When  an  individual  sells  more  than  he  buys,  he 
is  said  to  prosper.  When  a  nation  of  individuals 
in  the  aggregate  sells  more  than  it  buys,  the  bal- 
ance of  trade  is  said  to  be  in  its  favor,  and  it  is 
prosperous.  The  United  States  sold  more  than  it 
purchased,  in  1900,  and  had  a  net  balance  of 
$545,000,000  in  its  favor. 

When  an  individual  buys  more  than  he  sells,  he 
is  said  to  draw  on  his  credit  or  go  in  debt.  Such  a 
person  is  losing  money,  and  therefore  not  prosper- 
ing. 


When  a  nation  of  individuals  buys  in  the  aggre- 
gate more  than  it  sells,  the  balance  of  trade  is  said 
to  be  against  it,  and  it  is  not  in  a  prosperous  con- 
dition. In  1873  our  nation  spent  $119,656,000 
more  than  it  sold.  Our  people  lost  confidence  in 
one  another,  capital  withdrew  from  investment, 
and  the  worst  financial  panic  in  forty  years  fell 
upon  business  interests  throughout  the  nation. 

The  balance  of  trade  was  against  the  United 
States  by  many  millions  of  dollars  again  in  1893, 
and  business  interests  were  again  seriously  crip- 
pled. 

These  two  instances  cited  above  brought  hard 
times,  probably  intensified  from  other  and  complex 
causes,  when  men  failed  in  business,  families  lost 
homes,  farms  were  mortgaged,  debts  unpaid,  and 
fewer  students  attended  colleges  and  universities, 
as  they  had  to  help  father  and  mother  "  keep  the 
wolf  from  the  door," 

Profits  from  a  good  balance  in  a  nation's  favor, 
with  all  other  interests  economically  administered 
in  governmental  affairs,  give  money  to  invest 
in  public  and  private  improvements,  that  shall 
quicken,  stimulate  or  attract  trade.  Good  build- 
ings of  fire-proof  material  in  cities,  well-paved 
streets,  telephones,  railroads,  together  with  many 
public  and  private  luxuries  in  home  life  and  in 
the  office,  generally  follow  in  the  wake  of  a  good 
trade  balance.  Our  nation's  commerce  passed  the 
two-billion-dollar  limit  in  1900. 

In  1850  it  amounted  to $378,000,000 

I860 687,000,000 

1870 829,000,000 

1872 1,070,000,000 

1880 1,504,000,000 

1890 1,647,000,000 

1900 2,242,000,000 

In  1900  our  exports  amounted  to  $1,394,000,- 
000  and  our  imports  to  $848,000,000. 

Exports  are  the  goods  or  merchantable  articles 
shipped  from  commercial  centers  to  foreign  ports 
or  commercial  centers.    Imports  are  the  merchant- 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


11 


able  articles  brought  into  a  com- 
mercial center  from  a  foreign  port 
or  commercial  center. 

In  the  markets  of  Africa  and 
Japan  our  nation's  commerce  has 
increased  five  hundred  per  cent. 
Where  France  spent  forty  cents 
with  us  in  1890,  to-day  she  spends 
a  dollar.  Ten  years  ago  Germany 
spent  fifty-six  cents  with  us,  while 
now  she  spends  one  dollar  and  fifty 
cents  wdth  us. 

Great  Britain  in  1890  spent 
$3.62  in  the  United  States,  where 
now  she  spends  $5.40;  and  all 
other  countries  that  ten  years  ago 
spent  one  dollar  with  us,  now  spend 
three.  Great  as  is  our  foreign 
trade,  Ave  spend  the  most  of  our 
money  at  home.  Where  foreign- 
ers spend  one  dollar  at  our  counter, 
we  aggregate  sixty  dollars. 

The  world's  commerce  was  esti- 
mated in  1900  to  be  $14,500,000,- 
000.  The  chief  commercial  nations  of  the  world 
are  here  given,  with  the  amount  of  each  nation's 
commerce. 

These  data  are  taken  from  the  statistics  sent  out 
by  the  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum,  and 
give  the  commerce  for  each  country  named  for 
year  ending  December  31,  1900,  in  millions  of 
dollars. 


Cheapsi'de,  formerly  the  World's  Commercial  Center,  London,  England. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 


Great  Britain . . . . 

Germany 

United  States.. . . 

France 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Austria-Hungary 

Australia 

British  India 

Russia 

Italy 

Switzerland 

Canada 


Imports. 

Exports. 

2,548 

1,419 

1,888 

1,050 

829 

1,453 

882 

815 

770 

636 

409 

847 

387 

382 

845 

360 

298 

374 

302 

363 

340 

267 

215 

164 

172 

169 

3,967 

2,438 

2,282 

1,697 

1,406 

756 

719 

705 

667 

665 

607 

379 

341 


14 

15a 

156 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

84 

35 

36 

37 

38 


Spain 

China 

Hong  Kong 

Argentina 

Japan 

Straits  Settlements  (Asia), 

Sweden 

Brazil 

Denmark 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Egypt 

Norway 

Mexico 

Algeria 

New  Zealand 

Cuba 

Cape  Colony 

Chile 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Ceylon 

French  East  Indies  . . . 
British  West  Indies. . . 

Uruguay 

Greece 

Hawaii 


Imports. 

Eicporta. 

171 

141 

158 

119 

19 

•     10 

113 

155 

143 

100 

117 

103 

122 

92 

90 

122 

111 

75 

11 

100 

70 

86 

89 

47 

61 

72 

66 

66 

53 

66 

72 

45 

81 

35 

39 

59 

64 

33 

64 

29 

37 

87 

37 

81 

28 

26 

24 

29 

26 

20 

19 

22 

Total. 


312 

277 

29 

268 

243 

220 

214 

212 

186 

177 

156 

136 

133 

132 

119 

117 

116 

98 

97 

93 

74 

68 

54 

53 

46 

41 


12 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


COMMEKCE  OF  CHIEF  COMMERCIAX  NATIONS  —  Conmnubd. 


Rank. 

39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 


Philippine  Islands. 

Persia 

Venezuela 

Natal 

Siam 

Oolombia 

Peru 

Bolivia 

Portuguese  Africa  . 

Servia 

Bulgaria 

Porto  Rico 

Turkey  

Haiti 

British  Guiana 

Zanzibar 

Mauritius 

Senegal  (Africa).  . 

Ecuador 

Guatemala 

German  Africa 

Madagascar 

Martinique 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Total. 

20 

20 

40 

27 

13 

40 

13 

22 

35 

29 

6 

35 

12 

18 

30 

11 

19 

30 

8 

13 

21 

11 

10 

21 

14 

7 

21 

9 

12 

21 

9 

11 

20 

10 

10 

20 

12 

6 

18 

4 

12 

16 

6 

9 

15 

8 

7 

15 

6 

8 

14 

10 

4 

14 

5 

8 

13 

3 

8 

11 

7 

3 

10 

8 

2 

10 

5 

5 

10 

(The  other  countries  of  the  world 
less  than  ten  million  dollars  each.) 


have  a  commerce  of 


The  following  analysis  of  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States  for  the  year  ending  December  31, 
1900,  tells  at  what  national  connters  our  nation 
does  her  trading.     (Given  in  millions  of  dollars.) 


EXPORTS   AND  IMPORTS. 


Great  Britain 

Germany 

Canada 

Netherlands 

France  

Belgium 

Mexico 

Italy 

British  Australasia. . 

Cuba 

Japan  

British  Africa 

Denmark 

Spain 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Brazil 

Argentina 

China 

Hong  Kong 

British  West  Indies. 

Kussia 

Austria-Hungary  . . . 

Hawaii 

Portugal 

British  East  Indies. 
Chile 


U.S.  Exports 

U.S.Imports 

to. 

from. 

602.2 

151.5 

197.6 

103.5 

104.8 

40.7 

83.7 

17.3 

82.5 

72.7 

46.9 

14.6 

38.3 

28.2 

36.7 

27.1 

28.2 

5.3 

26.9 

31.7 

26.5 

26.3 

19.2 

1.1 

15.5 

.8 

15.2 

5.5 

11.5 

4.4 

11.5 

65.0 

11.1 

8.1 

11.1 

22.9 

9.2 

1.3 

8.6 

12.4 

11.8 

7.8 

7.6 

10.5 

7.5 

9.3 

5.7 

3.3 

5.2 

43.3 

4.6 

7.5 

EXPORTS  AND  IMPORTS— Continued. 

U.S.  Exports 
to. 

U.S.Importt 
from. 

Haiti     

3.7 

3.5 

3.0 

2.8 

2.6 

2.3 

1.9 

1.8 

1.8 

1.7 

1.7 

1.7 

1.6 

1.5 

1.2 

1.1 

1.1 

.9 

.8 

.8 

.7 

.6 

.6 

.6 

.6 

.5 

.5 

1.3 

Philippine  Islands 

6.1 

Venezuela 

6.5 

Porto  Rico 

2.4 

Oolombia 

3.1 

Peru 

2.9 

Dutch  East  Indies 

20.9 

British  Guiana 

4.6 

Santo  Domingo 

3.2 

Nicaragua 

1.7 

Urueuav 

2.1 

Costa  Rica 

2.9 

Ecuador 

1.6 

Effvpt 

8.5 

Bermuda 

.5 

Guatemala 

2.2 

Honduras 

1.1 

French  Africa.             ....         

Aden 

1.6 

Portuguese  Africa. 

Salvador 

.7 

British  Honduras 

.1 

Danish  West  Indies 

.4 

Dutch  West  Indies 

.2 

Gibraltar 

Dutch  Guiana 

1.3 

Azores  and  Madeira  Islands 

The  commerce  of  the  United  States  with  the  other 
commercial  countries  amounts  to  less  than  a  quarter  of  a 
million  dollars  to  each  country^ 

The  following  table  gives  the  data  on  our  nation's 
commerce  in  the  world  by  continents,  in  millions 
of  dollars ; 


Rest  of  North  America, 

South  America 

Africa 

Asia 

Oceanica 

Europe 


U.S.  Exports 
to. 


176.6 
38.3 
19.5 
64.7 
42.8 
1,028.7 


U.S.Imports 
from. 


130.0 
93.6 
11.2 

139.8 
34.6 

440.5 


The  United  States  first  ranked  all  other  countries 
as  an  exporting  nation  in  1898.  Great  Britain 
regained  this  place  the  next  year,  to  be  again  sup- 
planted by  the  United  States  in  1900.  The  im- 
ports from  and  the  exports  to  Europe  constitute 
more  than  one-half  of  the  world's  trade  to-day. 

Europe  purchases  three-fourths  of  our  exports 
and  sells  us  fully  half  our  imports. 

Machinery  has  enabled  manufacturing  nations 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


13 


to  produce  more  than  they  can  consume,  and  to- 
day these  nations  seek  new  avenues  of  trade  for 
their  wares. 

Our  nation,  with  European  countries,  is  seek- 
ing trade  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia.  The  pos- 
session of  the  Philippine  group  places  the  United 
States  in  a  position  to  secure  a  greater  share  of  the 
Asiatic  import  trade.  This  will  greatly  increase 
our  Pacific  trade  and  open  new  markets  for  our 
surplus  products.  Our  exports  show  a  constantly 
increasing  per  cent,  of  manufactured  goods,  while 
our  imports  show  an  increasing  per  cent,  of  raw 
materials  demanded  by  the  rapid  development  of 
our  manufacturing  industries. 

Our  nation's  share  in  the  import  trade  of  the 
continents  is  shown  in  the  following  table:* 

Continent  Per  cent,  of  imports 

continent.  j,^^^  United  States. 

North  America 53.0 

South  America 12.5 

Europe 15.2 

Asia    6.3 

Africa 6.5 

Oceanica 7.4 

This  country  has  entered  the  international  mar- 
ket. Her  commerce  is  upon  every  sea,  her  goods 
are  in  many  lands.  The  nation  is  maintaining  its 
per  cent,  of  trade  in  North  America  and  is  mate- 
rially increasing  its  per  cent,  in  Asia  and  Oceanica, 
while  it  continues  to  receive  a  half-billion-dollar 
balance  of  trade  from  Europe. 

QUESTION    SUMMARY. 

1.  What  is  the  essential  difiference  between  foreign  and 
domestic  commerce  ? 

2.  Which  is  the  greater  in  our  nation,  foreign  or  do- 
mestic commerce  ? 

3.  AVhat  generally  determines  the  location  of  a  com- 
mercial center  ? 

4.  Why  has  New  England  for  a  hundred  years  ranked 
the  other  States  in  her  manufactures,  and  why  does  she 
continue  to  head  the  list  of  manufacturing  States  of  our 
nation  ? 

5.  Name  ten  commercial  cities,  and  tell  how  they  be- 
came great  centers  of  trade. 


6.  What  do  we  mean  by  the  physiography  of  a  country  ? 

7.  How  and  in  what  way  does  it  affect  commerce? 

8.  What  reasons  can  you  assign  for  the  present  action 
in  planting  great  manufacturing  industries  in  the  South, 
East  and  South-Central  States,  employing  millions  of  dol- 
lars of  capital,  making  this  section  a  great  manufacturing 
region  to-day  ? 

9.  Name  some  of  the  locations  of  these  manufacturing 
plants,  and  state  the  character  of  their  manufactures. 

10.  Which  is  generally  largest — an  agricultural,  com- 
mercial, or  manufacturing  city  ?    Why  ? 

11.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  balance  of  trade. 

12.  Only  a  few  times  within  the  last  thirty  years  has 
the  balance  of  trade  been  against  our  nation,  yet  what 
was  the  result  in  1873  and  1893  ? 

13.  Can  we  say  that  this  was  wholly  the  result  of  the 
unfavorable  trade  balance  ? 

14.  What  are  the  general  indications  of  commercial 
prosperity  ? 

15.  Our  commerce  always  consists  of  what  two  ele- 
ments? 

16.  Which  should  be  the  greater  to  indicate  a  profitable 
trade  balance  to  a  nation  ? 

17.  Which  should  be  the  greater  to  indicate  a  losing 
trade  ? 

18.  When  did  our  commerce  reach  the  one-billion-dol- 
lar mark  ? 

19.  Can  you  account  for  the  great  difference  between 
the  commerce  of  1860  and  1872? 

20.  How  long  after  1870  before  our  commerce  was 
doubled  ?    How  may  we  account  for  this  ? 

21.  Where,  in  the  world,  has  our  commerce  increased 
five  hundred  per  cent.? 

22.  Does  this  indicate  that  our  Pacific  coast  commerce 
is  more  vigorous  than  our  Atlantic  and  Gulf  commerce  ? 
Ans.,  No  ;  but  that  great  development  is  being  shown  in 
this  region,  and  that  probably  the  great  accessions  to  our 
commerce  will  come  largely  through  the  Pacific  ocean 
commerce. 

23.  Which  nation  sells  the  most  to  the  United  States  ? 

24.  Which  nation  buys  the  most  from  the  United  States? 

25.  Then  what  per  cent,  of  our  trade  goes  to  this 
country  ? 

26.  What  nation  in  the  world  has  the  greatest  com- 
merce ?    Can  you  account. for  this  ? 

27.  How  does  the  United  States  rank  as  a  commercial 
nation  ? 

28.  What  ocean  is  the  greatest  commercial  ocean  to- 
day ?    Reason  for  answer. 

29.  Name  the  seacoast  cities  of  our  nation  through 
which  the  commercial  nations  of  the  world  trade  with 
the  United  States. 


14 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


30.  Name  the  seacoast  cities  of  the  other  com- 
mercial powers  through  which  the  United  States 
trades  with  them. 

31.  Which  continent  sells  the  most  goods  to  our 
nation  ? 

32.  Name,  in  order  of  purchase,  the  continents 
from  which  our  nation  buys  goods. 

33.  Name,  in  order  of  purchase,  the  nations  on 
each  continent  from  which  the  United  States  buys 
goods. 

34.  Name  the  continents  to  which  the  United 
States  sells  her  goods,  in  the  order  of  sale. 

35.  Name  the  nations  on  each  continent  to  which 
the  United  States  sells  goods,  in  the  order  of  sale. 

36.  What  are  two  kinds  of  commerce  according 
to  trade  ? 

37.  What  are  two  kinds  of  commerce  according  to 
transportation  ?    Ans.,  Land  and  water  commerce. 

38.  What  is  a  pack-train,  where  used,  and  what 
animal  is  usually  its  beast  of  burden  ? 

39.  What  is  a  burro  ? 

40.  What  is  a  llama? 

41.  What  elements  have  greatly  assisted  in  de- 
veloping a  good  home  market  and  a  lucrative  for- 
eign trade  ? 

42.  Explain  how  all  industrial  classes  may  be  afifected 
by  a  good  commerce  in  a  nation. 

43.  Can  you  name  a  city  in  our  nation  that  is  largely 
dependent  on  the  pack-train  for  its  supplies  ? 

44.  Name  the  ten  greatest  commercial  powers,  in  order 
of  commerce. 

45.  Who  were  the  first  commercial  people  of  history  ? 
Ans.f  The  Phoenicians,  who  were  missionaries  of  com- 
merce and  disseminators  of  civilization. 

46.  Fill  in  amount  in  thousands  of  dollars  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : 

COMMERCE    BETWEEN   THE   UNITED   STATES   AND   THE   FIFTEEN 
LEADING  OOMMEBOIAL   NATIONS   OF   THE  WORLD. 


(  Exports,  $ 
( Imports,  % 
I  Exports,  .$ 
\  Imports,  % 
j  Exports,  $ 
\  Imports,  $ 
i  Exports,  $ 
\  Imports,  $ 
^  Exports,  $ 
I  Imports,  $ 
j  Exports,  $ 
\  Imports,  $ 
I  Exports,  $ 
\  Imports,  $ 
^  Exports,  $ 
I  Imports,  $ 


g    j  Exports,  .$ 

■  I  Imports,  $ 
1^  j  Exports,  % 
^"-  \  Imports,  $ 
j^i     \  Exports,  $ 

■  \  Imports,  i 
■JO    \  Exports,  $ 

■  \  Imports,  $ 
iq  I  Exports,  $ 
^***  1  Imports,  $ 
■^4    j  Exports,  $ 

/  Imports,  $ 
,g    {  Exports,  % 

■  /  Imports,  $ 


A  Half-Mile  of  Pork,  Armour's  Great  Packing  House,  Chicago,  U.S. A 


CHAPTER  11. 
The  Food  Commerce  of  Nations. 

Food  commekce  is  the  greatest  commerce  of  the 
world.  For  this  reason  it  will  be  interesting  and 
instructive  to  study  the  production  and  consump- 
tion of  a  variety  of  foods.  The  data  given  in  this 
chapter  are  drawn  from  Government  sources  and 
from  Mr.  Geo.  W.  Waldron's  magazine  article  on 
"  The  World's  Bill  of  Fare." 

The  very  largest  food  crop  is  the  potato  crop, 
that  at  present  writing  is  estimated  to  be  four 
billions  of  bushels  annually.  Seven-eighths  of  this 
crop  is  raised  in  Europe,  and  the  United  States 
raises  one-half  of  the  remaining  one-eighth  of  the 
crop.  The  greatest  consumers  of  this  crop  are 
named  below,  the  figures  indicating  the  number  of 
pounds  per  capita  per  annum. 


Irish 1,467 

Germans 1,300 

Dutch 840 

Norwegians  and 

Swedes 740 

French 700 


Austrians 663 

Canadians 660 

Russians 481 

English 238 

Americans  (U.  S.) 200 

Italians 48 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


16 


While  the  Irish  are  the  greatest  potato-eaters, 
the  Germans  are  the  greatest  consumers,  using 
annually  one-fourth,  of  the  world's  crop. 

The  world's  grain  crop  is  laade  up  as  follows : 

Wheat 2|  billion  bushels, 

Oats 3J 

Corn 2| 

Rye II       " 

Barley t       " 

This  lists  the  cereal  food  for  man  and  beast, 
almost  eleven  billion  bushels,  although  the  millions 
of  pounds  of  rice  used  in  Western  as  well  as 
Oriental  lands  is  yet  to  be  added  to  complete  the 
total  amount. 

The  ten  great  wheat  regions  of  the  world  are 
here  given,  with  their  product  indicated  for  1899 
in  millions  of  bushels: 


1.  United  States *547 

2.  Russia 487 

3.  France 366 

4.  British  India 233 

5.  Austria 190 


6.  Italy   138 

7.  Germany 141 

8.  Argentina 92 

9.  Spain 88 


Over  87^  per  cent,  of  the  world's  wheat  crop  is 
supplied  by  these  ten  regions.  Fully  one-half  of 
the  world's  wheat  is  raised  in  Europe,  jet  it  imports 
one-half  of  all  exported  wheat  from  other  conti- 
nents. 

The  most  important  wheat-consumers  are  as 
named  below.  The  numbers  indicate  the  pounds 
per  capita  per  annum. 


1.  French 467 

2.  Canadians 360 

3.  Italians  307 

4.  English 250 

5.  Americans  (U.  S.). . .  240 


6.  Dutch 240 

7.  Austrians 230 

8.  Germans 180 

9.  Russians 93 

10.  Japanese +22 


The  leading  nations  using  rye  flour  are : 


Danish ....320  lbs. 

Swedes  314  lbs. 

Russians 307  lbs. 

Norwegians 224  lbs. 


French 53  lbs. 

Italians 29  lbs. 

Germans  26  lbs. 

Americans  (TJ.  S.). .  22  lbs. 


The  oatmeal-eaters  are: 

Norwegians 112  lbs. 

Germans 97  lbs. 

Swedes 96  lbs. 

Dutch 96  lbs. 

Russians 90  lbs. 

Belgians 74  lbs. 


Americans  (U.  S.). .  70  lbs. 

Spanish 55  lbs. 

Italians 46  lbs. 

Austrians 45  lbs. 

Canadians 51  lbs. 


*  Nearly  25  per  cent,  of  entire  crop, 
t  Increasing  rapidly. 


The  Scotch  are  among  the  heaviest  oatmeal- 
eaters,  but  there  are  no  reliable  data  as  to  amount 
consumed  apart  from  the  rest  of  Great  Britain, 
which  on  the  whole  consumes  but  12  pounds  per 
capita. 

The  cereal  rice  is  most  largely  used  by  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese,  who  require  300  pounds 
per  capita ;  East-India  people,  200  lbs.  (the  prov- 
ince of  Bombay  uses  547'  lbs.)  ;  the  Italians,  14 
lbs. ;  English,  9  lbs. ;  Spanish,  5  lbs. ;  and  Ameri- 
cans (U.  S.),  4  lbs. 

The  New  World  raises  nearly  all  the  world's 
corn,  four-fifths  of  the  crop  being  produced  by  the 
United  States.  Here,  it  is  largely  used  to  fatten 
cattle  and  hogs,  although  the  Yankee  "  Johnny- 
cake,"  Southern  "hoecake,"  and  Western  "corn 
bread "  are  well-known  elements  in  our  nation's 
bill  of  fare. 

The  people  of  our  nation  are  the  greatest  meat- 
eaters,  the  per  capita  per  annum  being  147  pounds. 
We  annually  consume  five  billion  pounds  of  beef, 
four  billion  pounds  of  pork,  four-fifths  of  a  billion 
pounds  of  mutton,  and  one  and  one-fifth  billion 
pounds  of  fish,  oysters,  and  fowl. 

The  meat  schedule  for  the  other  great  meat- 
eating  nations  is  as  follows: 

English 100  lbs.  Belgians 61  lbs. 

Norwegians 80  lbs.  Austrians 60  lbs. 

French 77  lbs.  Irish 56  lbs. 

Spanish 70  lbs.  Russians 50  lbs. 

Germans 64  lbs.  Dutch 50  lbs. 

Swedes  and  Swiss  . .  62  lbs.  Italians 24  lbs. 

The  leading  beef-producing  regions  are  here 
named  in  order  of  rank : 

1.  United  States *25^ 

2.  Russia 13^: 

3.  Argentina 12^ 

4.  Grermany 10^ 

The  world's  cattle,  in  1900,  numbered  181| 
million  head  (in  round  numbers). 

The  greatest  pork-producing  regions  are : 

4.  Germany 8^% 

5.  France 5% 

6.  Great  Britain  3% 


5.  France 71^ 

6.  Great  Britain 6% 

7.  Austria 44? 


1.  United  States *56^ 

2.  Austria 9^ 

3.  Russia 8*^ 


*  The  percentages  marked  with  a  *  are  of  the  entire  amount  produced  In 
the  world. 


16 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Swedes 40  lbs. 

Dutch   34  lbs. 

French 30  lbs. 

Germ(ins 30  lbs. 

Belgians 23  lbs. 


Austrians  ...  18  lbs. 

Russians 13  lbs. 

Norwegians. .  12  lbs. 

Spanish 8  lbs. 

Italians 6  lbs. 


The  sugar  used  comes  principally 
from  two  sources  —  from  the  sugar 
cane  and  from  sugar  beets.  The  for- 
mer can  be  raised  only  in  the  warmer 
portions  of  southern  temperate  and 
tropical  regions,  with  certain  agree- 
able climatic  conditions;  the  latter 
can  be  raised  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  temperate  zone. 

Below  are  given  the  leading  cane- 
sugar-producing  regions,  with  their 
output  for  1900  in  thousands  of  tons: 


1.  Java 670 

2.  Cuba 500 

8.  Louisiana  . . .  340 


4.  Hawaii 320 

5.  Mauritius  . .   160 

6.  Brazil 150 


output,     2850 


Sugar  Levee,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. 

The  world's  hogs,  in  1900,  numbered  122f  mill 
ion  head  (in  round  numbers). 

The  most  important  sheep-producing  regions  are 

1.  Australia *27^      4.  Tnited  States  . .     9^^ 

2.  Argentina 18^      5.  Great  Britain  . .     7\% 

3.  Russia loj^ 

The  world's  sheep,  in  1900,  numbered  410 
million  head  (in  round  numbers).  Sheep 
are  raised  more  largely  for  wool  than  for 
mutton. 

The  lovers  of  eggs  are  given  below,  the 
figures  indicating  the  number  per  capita  con- 
sumed by  each  nation : 
1.  Americans  (U.S. ),+133      5.  Germans 75 


Total     cane-sugar 
■^housand  tons. 

In  the  beet-sugar-producing  regions 
(principal  ones)  the  output  in  1900  in  thousand 
tons  was  as  follows : 


1.  Germany 1,950 

2.  Austria 1,075 


3.  France 1,125 

4.  Russia 890 


2.  Canadians 90 

3.  Danes 80 

4.  French 78 


6.  Italians 47 

7.  English 39 


The  lovers  of  sweets  are  indicated  by  the 
follomng  large  sugar-consumers: 

English 90  lbs.      Swiss 52  lbs. 

Americans  (U.  S.)  60  lbs.      Danes 48  lbs. 

•The  percentages  marked  with  a  ♦  are  of  the  entire  amount  pro- 
duced In  the  world. 

fOver  ten  million  eggs  used  In  1900. 


Picking  the  Famous  Uji  Tea,  near  To^ 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


I 

.17 


5.  Belgium 

6.  Holland  , 


340 
170 


7.  U.  S. 


*89 


Total  beet-sugar  output,  5950  thou- 
sand tons.  Over  67  per  cent,  of 
the  world's  sugar  output  to-day  is 
beet  sugar,  and  as  the  regions  for  rais- 
ing cane  are  circumscribed  and  there- 
fore limited  to  a  much  smaller  area, 
this  per  cent,  of  beet  sugar  is  rapidly 
increasing. 

The  total  sugar  consumption  in 
1900  was  8,200,000  tons. 

The  greatest  tea-drinker  outside  of 
the  Orient  to-day  is  the  Englishman, 
who  requires  88  ounces.  His  son-in- 
law,  the  Canadian,  needs  70  ounces ; 
Uncle  Sam's  children  each  use  1(5 
ounces  (one  full  pound)  ;  while  the 
Russian  uses  but  9  ounces. 

The    very    heaviest    coffee-drinker 
is    the    Netherlander,    who    requires 
247  ounces  —  nearly  15|  pounds  — 
each  year.     The  Dane  gets  along  with 
176.     Each  American  in  our  Union  requires  168 
ounces  — 10^  pounds;  but  our  nation  is  so  big 
that   it  takes   half  the   world's   coffee   to   supply 
onal   breakfast   beverage  —  800 
The  figures   for  other  nations 


us  with   this  national   breakfast   beverage  —  800 
million   pounds. 
are  as  follows: 


Swiss 112  ounces. 

Germans 78       " 

French 53       " 

Austrians 32       " 


Italians 17  ounces. 

English 3 

Russians 3       " 


The  greatest  tea  regions  are  found  in  China, 
Japan,  and  the  East  Indies,  although  this  plant  is 
now  being  successfully  cultivated  in  the  Western 
World. 

The  great  coffee-producing  region  is  Brazil,  pro- 
ducing two-thirds  of  the  world's  entire  crop.  Vene- 
zuela, Central  America  and  Mexico  in  the  ISTew 
World,  and  the  East  Indies  and  Arabia  in  the  East- 


*Bapidljr  increasing. 


Drying  Coffee,  Porto  Rico. 

ern  World  supplement  Brazil's  output.  Arabia  is 
the  home  of  Mocha,  the  most  famous  and  best  of 
coffee  brands. 

A  study  of  the  above  data  will  show  the  reason 
why  the  United  States  is  now  and  will  continue  to 
be  an  increasingly  important  agent  in  food  com- 
merce. We  see  that  our  nation  is  a  granary  for 
the  world  as  well  as  the  great  butcher-shop  of  the 
nations,  her  meats  —  fresh,  salted  and  canned  — 
being  sent  in  one  or  all  forms  to  every  meat-con- 
suming nation  on  the  globe. 

From  the  published  governmental  reports  for 
our  nation's  commerce  for  the  year  1900,  we  glean 
the  following  interesting  facts  about  our  nation's 
food  commerce. 

Most  school  children  know  that  the  leaf  of  a 
semi-tropical  plant  gives  us  our  tea,  that  the  berry 
of  a  tropical  plant  is  our  coffee,  that  chocolate  is 
prepared  from  the  roasted  bean  of  the  cacao  tree, 


18 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


while  the  shell  of  the  cacao  berry  or  bean  fur- 
nishes the  cacao  or  cocoa  shells  of  commerce. 

But  many  are  surprised  to  learn  that  impurities 
are  added  between  the  field  where  grown  and  the 
table  where  served,  to  such  an  extent  that  a  chem- 
ical analysis  has  revealed  that  in  some  instances 
only  60  per  cent,  of  the  article  bought  is  from  na- 
ture, the  rest  being  the  product  of  that  artist  who 
taught  the  trader  (not  the  Yankee  from  Connecti- 
cut) how  to  make  wooden  nutmegs  that  defy  detec- 
tion. We  learn  that  this  artist  now  makes  clay 
coffee  berries,  colored  with  tan-bark,  and  substi- 
tutes them  for  some  of  the  genuine,  as  the  coffee 
passes  him  on  the  way  to  our  breakfast-table.  Thus 
we  may  grind  the  coffee,  and,  boiling  it,  have  gen- 
uine "  muddy  "  coffee. 

In  a  similar  manner  our  food  artist  adulterates 
chocolate  with  a  preparation  of  mutton  tallow, 
cheap  sugar,  shells  of  the  cacao  bean,  sawdust,  and 
potato  meal.  When  all  is  ready  a  rich  chocolate 
brown  is  given  with  ochrd,  and  mixed  so  thoroughly 
with  that  fresh  from  the  roasted  bean  that  most  of 
us  are  ignorant  of  the  deception.  • 

This  trade  artist  stirs  the  tea,  takes  toll  out  of 
the  flour  barrel  while  he  covers  the  damaged  flour 
with  mineral  salts,  "  doctors "  our  syrups,  makes 
much  vinegar,  and  even  leaves  his  trade-mark  in 
the  cheap  candies  consumed  in  car-load  lots  by 
Uncle  Sam's  children. 

These  food  adulterations  have  led  to  the  careful 
inspection  of  all  food  shipped  out  and  food  sent 
into  a  commercial  nation.  The  counterfeiting  of 
money  is  as  nothing  compared  to  this  counterfeit- 
ing of  pure  wholesome  food  products. 

The  Celestial  trader,  the  Japanese  dealer  and  the 
East-Indian  merchant  employ  the  food  artist  quite 
as  much  as  the  proverbial  "  Yankee  grocer,"  who  is 
reported  to  sand  his  sugar,  doctor  his  vinegar,  and 
make  his  syrups.  Although  legislation  seeks  to 
protect  the  consumer  from  this  nefarious  tampering 
with  the  necessaries  and  luxuries  in  food  commerce, 


yet  the  deceptions  are  often  so  complete  as  to  de- 
ceive sight,  taste,  and  smell. 

Uncle  Sam  imports  the  following-named  food 
elements  principally  from  the  countries  indicated 
below : 

( The  names  of  foods,  and  the  names  of  countries 
from  which  imported,  are  here  given  in  order  of 
purchase.) 

1.  Sugar. —  Dutch  East  Indies,  Hawaii,  Cuba, 
Germany,  British  West  Indies,  British  Guiana, 
Santo  Domingo,  Porto  Rico,  Brazil,  Peru,  and 
Philippine  Islands. 

2.  Coffee. —  Brazil,  Venezuela,  Mexico,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  Guatemala,  Costa  Rica,  and  Colombia. 

3.  Fruits  and  Nuts. —  Italy,  British  West  In- 
dies, Spain,  Costa  Rica,  Colombia,  France,  and 
Greece. 

4.  Tea. — China,  Japan,  and  British  East  Indies. 

5.  Fish. —  Canada,  France,  Great  Britain,  Neth- 
erlands, Sweden  and  I^orway,  and  Portugal. 

6.  Cacao  Shells  and  Chocolate. —  British  West 
Indies,  Dutch  Guiana,  Ecuador,  Brazil,  and  Por- 
tugal. 

7.  Spices. —  British  East  Indies,  Great  Britain, 
ISTetherlands,  Dutch  East  Indies,  China,  Hong 
Kong,  and  West  Indies. 

8.  Rice. —  Germany,  Japan,  China,  and  Great 
Britain. 

(Many  tropical  fruits  sent  from  Great  Britain, 
Germany  and  Netherlands  come  to  them  from  their 
tropical  colonies,  and  are  by  these  nations  shipped 
to  consumers.) 

DIAGRAM   SHOWING   KELATIVE   PROPORTION   OP   POODS   IM- 
PORTED  IN    1900. 
(The  figures  Indicate  value  in  millions  of  dollars.) 
121  26  60  100 

II  I  I    - 


Tea. 


Fruits  and  Nuts. 


Coffee. 


Sugar. 


-  Fish. 

-  Cacao  and  Chocolate. 

-  Spices. 
Bice. 


Our  nation  exports  the  following  foods  in  order 
of  importance  as  named,  principally  to  the  nations 
given  below.    (For  year  1900,  in  million  dollars.) 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


19 


1.  Breadstuff s.—  262f ,  to  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  Netherlands,  Belgium,  Denmark, 
Canada,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Hong  Kong, 
Portngal,.  France,  West  Indies,  and  Japan. 

2.  Meat  Products. — 175^,  to  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  Netherlands,  Belgium, 
Cuba,  France,  British  West  Indies,  Sweden 
and  Norway,  British  Africa,  and  Italy. 

3.  Fruits  and  Nuts. —  llf,  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, Canada,  Germany,  Netherlands,  France, 
Belgium,  and  West  Indies. 

4.  Dairy  Products. —  9^,  to  Great  Britain, 
Cuba,  Canada,  Brazil,  Venezuela,  Japan, 
and  Hawaii. 

5.  Fish,  and  Oysters. —  54,  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, West  Indies,  British  Australasia,  Can- 
ada, Brazil,  and  Mexico. 

6.  Glucose  or  Grape  ,  Sugar. —  3  ^/g,  to 
.Great  Britain,  Canada,  British,  Australasia, 
Belgium,  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  British 
Africa. 

7.  Vegetables. —  2^/5,  to  Cuba,  Great 
Britain,  Canada,  Hawaii,  and  Porto  Rico. 

8.  Eggs. —  1,  to  Cuba,  Great  Britain,  British 
Columbia,  Hawaii,  Germany,  Mexico,  and  British 
Africa. 

The  quantity  of  our  food  exports  is  increasing 
each  year,  while  the  quantity  of  our  food  imports 
is  being  perceptibly  lessened.  In  a  few  years  our 
nation  can  raise  all  her  sugar,  and  through  its 
island  dependencies  obtain  a  great  deal  of  the 
nation's  tea,  coffee,  cacao,  spices,  and  the  million 
and  a  half  dollars'  worth  of  rice  that  is  now  an- 
nually imported.  Our  sale  of  food  products  is 
rapidly  increasing  in  the  Oriental  countries,  while 
European  countries  continue  to  use  their  full 
quota  and  increase  their  orders  for  meat  products. 

Let  us  realize  that  our  cereal  exports  exceed 
any  other  nation's  cereal  exports  by  many  mill- 
ions ;  that  our  meat  exports  are  second  only  to  our 
cereals.  Fast  transportation,  refrigeration  and 
improved    methods    for    preserving    meats    have 


Blossom  and  Fiu:t  of  the  Cacao  Tree,  Hope  Gardens,  Kingston,  W.  I. 


opened  up  new  markets  for  American  pork,  beef, 
mutton,  and  poultry,  as  well  as  American  fruits. 
It  is  confidently  believed  that  the  completion  of 
the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  and  the  digging  of  the 
Panama  or  Nicaragua  Canal  will  mean  millions  of 
dollars  to  food  commerce.  Cost  of  transportation 
w^ill  be  lessened,  the  improved  quality  of  certain 
foods  will  multiply  the  orders,  and  all  food-pro- 
ducing nations  will  profit  thereby. 

The  two  nations  that  stand  ready  to  derive  the 
greatest  benefits  from  these  shortened  routes  are 
the  two  that  now  very  nearly  supply  all  food  de- 
mands at  home,  lying  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
Pacific, —  Australia   and  the  United   States. 

QUESTION     SUMMARY. 

1.  What  fact  shows  the  importance  of  food  commerce  ? 

2.  What  is  the  greatest  food  crop,  and  where  is  the 
larger  part  of  it  raised  ? 

3.  Name  the  greatest  consumers  of  this  crop. 

4.  What  nation  uses  one-fourth  of  the  world's  potato 
crop  ? 


20 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Husking  the  Crop  in  &  Cocoanut  Forest,  near  Mayaguez,  Porto  Rico 


5.  Name  the  grains  that  furnish  the  cereal  foods  for 
man. 

6.  Name  the  greatest  wheat  regions  of  the  world,  in 
order  of  rank. 

7.  Name  the  most  important  wheat  consumers,  in  order 
of  rank. 

8.  Name  the  leading  nations  using  rye  as  a  food. 

9.  Name  the  world's  oatmeal-eaters. 

10.  What  nation  in  a  cold  climate  heads  the  list? 

11.  What  nations  raise  the  greatest  amount  of  rice,  and 
by  what  people  is  it  most  largely  consumed  ? 

12.  What  nation  produces  four-fifths  of   the  world's 
corn  crop? 

13.  AVhat  nation  of  people  require  nearly  150  pounds  of 
meat  per  capita  each  year  ? 

14.  Enumerate  our  nation's  meat  bill. 

15.  Name,  in  rank,  the  ten  greatest  meat-eating  nations. 

16.  AVhat  proportion  of  the  world's  beef  does  the  United 
States  produce  ? 

17.  AVhat  proportion   of    the   world's    pork    does    our 
nation  produce  ? 

18.  What  nation   raises  more  than  one-fourth  of   the 
world's  sheep  ? 


19.  What  nations  do  you  think  lead  in  the  pro- 
duction of  wool  ? 

20.  AVhat  is  the  approximate  yearly  consumption 
of  eggs  by  the  nations  named  in  the  text?  Ans., 
Multiply  the  population  of  each  nation  named  in 
the  list  (seven  in  all)  by  the  number  of  eggs  per 
capita,  and  add  the  products. 

21.  Name  the  ten  greatest  sugar  consumers. 

22.  Name  the  five  greatest  cane-sugar-producing 
regions. 

23.  Name  the  five  greatest  beet-sugar-producing 
regions. 

24.  Why  is  the  quantity  of  beet  sugar  greater 
than  the  quantity  of  cane  sugar  ? 

25.  AVhat  parts  of  the  United  States  seem  best 
adapted  to  sugar  beets  ? 

26.  Locate  some  large  sugar-beet  factories  now  in 
operation. 

27.  Where  are  the  gi'eat  tea  regions  ? 

28.  Name  the  greatest  tea  consumers. 

29.  Name  the  coffee  regions  of  the  world. 
80.  Name  the  greatest  coffee-consuming  nations. 

31.  AA^hat  nation  uses  the  largest  amount  of  coffee 
per  capita  ? 

32.  What  nation  consumes  half  of  the  world's 
coffee  ? 

33.  What  nation  is  the  greatest  factor  in  food  pro- 
duction?   Jns.,  United  States. 

34.  AA'^hat  nations  on  what  continent  are  the  greatest 
food -buyers  ? 

35.  AA''hy  is  corn  meeting  with  much  favor  as  a  food  in 
thickly  settled  regions  of  Europe?  Ans.,  Corn  meal  can 
be  mixed  with  rye  or  wheat  flour,  giving  a  cheaper  yet 
very  nutritious  food  for  the  peasantry  of  Belgium,  Ger- 
many, Holland,  Austria,  and  France. 

36.  AVhere  are  AVestern  cereals  and  meats  being  intro- 
duced with  gratifying  success  ?    A71S.,  Japan  and  China. 

37.  A\''hat  is  the  tea  of  commerce  ? 

38.  AVhat  is  the  coffee  of  commerce  ? 

39.  AVhat  is  chocolate  ?    AVhere  obtained  ? 

40.  How  are  tea,  coffee  and  chocolate  adulterated  ? 

41.  AVhat  is  the  chief  duty  of  the  Government  food 
inspector  ? 

42.  AVhat  ten  regions  send  us  sugar  ? 

43.  Name  five  regions  from  which  we  import  coffee. 

44.  Name  five  countries  that  send  us  fruits  and  nuts. 

45.  Name  the  eight  most  important  food  products  im- 
ported by  our  nation. 

46.  Name  the  eight  most  important  food  products  ex- 
ported by  our  nation. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


21 


47.  "Where  is  our  nation  finding  new  markets  for 
food  products  ?     How  do  you  account  for  this? 

48.  What  will  be  the  effect  of  a  Central-American 
canal  upon  food  commerce  ? 

49.  Why  will  Australia  and  the  United  States  lead 
the  commercial  nations  in  the  benefits  derived  from 
this  canal? 

50.  Name  the  nations  engaged  in  food  commerce 
with  the  United  States,  and  indicate  the  ports  of  our 
nation  through  which  this  commerce  passes. 


CHAPTER  III. 
Overland    Commerce. 

The  pack-train,  caravan,  stage,  and  wagon- 
freighter  have  been  the  world's  chief  means 
of  overland  commerce.  The  pack-trains  of 
Xorth  and  South  America  were  described  in 
a  preceding  chapter  as  now  being  confined 
to  the  inaccessible  regions  for  stage,  wagon- 
freighter,  or  the  railroad.  Xo  long  stage 
routes  at  present  exist,  while  a  generation 
or  two  ago  there  were  stage  and  "  freighter  " 
routes  several  hundred,  and  in  some  instances 
more  than  a  thousand  miles  long.  To-day  a  hun- 
dred-mile stage  route  can  scarcely  be  found,  for  the 
railroad  has  supplanted  the  stage  all  over  the  world. 
Only  in  mountainous  districts  or  thinly  populated 
regions  is  the  stage  and  wagon-freighter  known  as 
an  instrument  or  means  of  important  commercial 
intercourse. 

One  of  the  features  of  Col.  Cody's  ("Buffalo 
Bill's")  Wild  West  Show  is  an  old-time  stage- 
coach of  the  plains.  The  fact  that  this  very  com- 
mon vehicle  of  trade  and  travel  forty  years  ago  is 
to-day  a  curiosity  and  carried  around  in  shows, 
teaches  us  the  development  and  general  adoption  of 
modern  and  more  rapid  means  of  transit. 

The  most  important  vehicle  of  overland  com- 
merce is  the  caravan.  A  company  of  merchants, 
travelers  or  pilgrims,  who  for  greater  security  asso- 
ciate themselves  together  in  travel,  is  called  a 
"  caravan."  Robbers  lurk  in  the  vicinity  of  trade 
routes  across  deserts  and  arid  areas,  and  so  many 


China's  "Common  Carrier" — Her  Substitute  for  Railways — a  "Camel 
Square"  in  Peking,  China. 


dangers  threaten  the  commercial  traveler  that  so 
far  back  as  overland  commerce  existed  or  authentic 
history  runs,  the  caravan  has  been  one  means  of 
trade  intercourse  across  the  arid  lands  of  Africa 
and  Asia. 

Mohammed,  in  the  seventh  century  A.  D.,  en- 
joined his  followers  to  visit  Mecca  at  least  once  in 
a  lifetime.  For  this  reason,  Mecca  became  the 
IToly  City  of  the  Islam  world.  During  the  cen- 
turies that  have  followed,  adherents  to  this  faith 
have  implicitly  obeyed  this  injunction,  and  large 
caravans  of  pilgrims  have  at  stated  times,  assem- 
bled in  countries  where  the  Mohammedan  faith  has 
been  established.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  pil- 
'grim  caravans  assemble  at  Cairo  and  Damascus. 
The  latter  is  the  larger  caravan,  and  in  the  days 
of  the  Saracenic  Empire  frequently  consisted  of 
from  thirty  thousand  to  fifty  thousand  pilgrims. 
The  caravan  by  which  the  Moslem  pilgrims  from 
Persia  travel  starts  from  Bagdad,  and,  we  are  told. 


22 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Lumber  for  the  Gold  Belt,  Ouray,  Colorado. 


is  the  vehicle  of  a  very  important  trade.  In  former 
years  a  very  important  caravan  gathered  at  Mus- 
cat and  proceeded  thence  to  Mecca.  For  many  cen- 
turies these  fonr  caravans  made  regular  pilgrim- 
ages to  the  holy  city  of  the  Moslem  faith,  nnder 
the  protection  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey.  When  the 
caravans  arrived  bringing  goods  from  all  quarters 
of  the  Eastern  world,  Mecca  "appeared  like  a  great 
fair,  a  rival  to  the  Novgorod  of  modern  days. 

The  Muscat,  or  "  Indian "  caravan,  as  it  was 
called,  has  long  since  been  abandoned,  but  the 
Cairo,  Damascus  and  Bagdad  caravans  still  make 
pilgrimages  to  Mecca,  forming  important  means 
of  trade  between  southwest  Asia  and  northeast 
Africa.  Modern  Mecca,  like  ancient  Mecca,  de- 
pends upon  the  pilgrimages  for  its  existence,  al- 
though the  number  of  pilgrims  is  now  reduced  to 
forty  or  fifty  thousand  a  year. 

Trade  between  Tripoli  and  central  Africa  is 
carried  on  exclusively  by  caravans.  This  route 
runs  across  the  Sahara  desert  and  through  the 
Soudanese  plains.  The  trade  between  Darfur  and 
Egypt  is  a  caravan  trade.  Darfur  is  rich  in 
cereals,  copper,  and  iron.  Tobacco  is  a  staple 
product  here,  and  is  used  in  every  form  by  both 
men  and  women.  Quantities  of  tamarinds,  dates 
and  watermelons  arc  also  grown  in  Darfur.  These 
products  are  exchanged  for  the  durra,  barley,  cot- 
ton and  indigo  of  Egypt. 


These  caravan  routes  crossing  the  Sahara  seek 
stations  at  as  many  oases  as  possible.  Frequently 
terrific  sand-storms  overtake  the  caravan  of  this 
desert,  and  instances  are  on  record  of  whole  cara- 
vans being  covered  up,  entombed  by  the  sand. 

The  mirage  of  the  desert  is  a  well-known  il- 
lusion to  the  experienced  trader,  but  the  unwary 
are  frequently  deceived,  decoyed  away  and  lost. 

The  great  trade  between  Russian  Asia  and  China 
is  largely  a  caravan  trade,  one  route  extending  west 
to  Moscow.  The  Trans-Siberian  Railway  is  now 
supplanting  many  of  these  Siberian  caravan 
routes. 

The  trade  caravan  has  its  definite  route,  regular 
stations,  and  stated  time  limits  to  "  make "  each 
station.  It  starts  at  a  certain  hour  and  day,  and 
hence  runs  on  schedule  time. 

The  leader  of  a  trade  caravan  is  called  the 
Karwan-Baschi,  and  is  usually  elected  by  the  mer- 
chants from  their  own  n-umber. 

The  beast  of  burden  is  usually  the  camel,  chosen 
for  its  great  endurance  and  ability  to  go  without 
water  for  long  periods  —  even  five  to  nine  days  at 
a  time.  Because  of  its  stately  and  steady  tread 
and  its  universal  use,  the  camel  is  frequently  called 
the  "  ship  of  the  desert."  A  caravan  sometimes 
has  more  than  a  thousand  camels  following  one 
after  another  in  single  file.  Such  a  caravan  is 
more  than  a  mile  long. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY, 


23 


When  the  camels  have  a  load  weighing 
from  five  hundred  to  six  hundred  pounds, 
we  have  a  heavy  caravan  that  can  travel  only 
from  fifteen  to  eighteen  miles  a  day.  A 
light  caravan  can  travel  from  twenty-two  to 
twenty-five  miles  per  day,  as  the  eamel's 
load  is  not  over  three  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds. 

QUESTION    SUMMARY. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  overland  commerce? 

2.  What  is  a  pack-train  ?    What  animals  are  most 
largely  used  for  this  purpose  ?    Why  ? 

3.  What  is  a  "freighter"?    Can  you  name  any 
place  where  now  in  use  ? 

4.  Why  are  stage  routes  fewer  in  number  and 
shorter  than  in  former  years  ? 

5.  Name  a  stage  route  now  in  operation. 

6.  Define  a  caravan. 

7.  Why  is  Mecca  an  important  center  of  caravan  routes  ? 
Locate  this  city. 

8.  Who  was  Mohammed  ? 

9.  Name  important  commercial  cities  connected  with 
Mecca  by  caravan. 


One  of  the  Typical  "Freight  Trains"  that  Carry  China's  Home  Commerce 
Caravan  LeavinrT  Pokin. 


The  Mountain  Carrier. 

10.  Which  Pilgrim  caravan  has  been  the  most  impor- 
tant route  ? 

11.  Give  some  facts  about  the  Indian  caravan. 

12.  Mecca  is  likened  to  what  city  ?    Where  is  this  city 
and  what  can  you  say  about  it? 

13.  Discuss  the  Tripoli  caravan. 

14.  A  few  score  years  ago,  this  was  one 
of  the  greatest  slave-trading  routes  in  the 
world.  Why  is  this  not  profitably  carried 
on  at  the  present  day  ? 

15.  Where  and  what  is  Darfur  ? 

16.  With  what  country  does  it  trade  ? 

17.  What  products  are  exchanged  ? 

18.  What  is  durra  ? 

19.  On  what  kind  of  tree  do  dates  grow  ? 

20.  Tell  the  comparative  area  of  the  Sa- 
hara desert. 

21.  What  are  some  of  the  theories  that 
account  for  this  vast  arid  waste  ? 

22.  What  plans  are  now  being  laid  to  re- 
claim this  arid  waste  ?  Ans. ,  Plans  are  be- 
ing perfected  for  canals  that  shall  let  the 
sea  in,  it  being  believed  that  this  will  re- 
store vegetation,  making  the  desert  a  great 
oasis  instead  of  a  sandy  waste. 

23.  What  can  you  say  of  the  Siberian 
caravan  routes  ? 

24.  Name  the  most  important  caravan 
routes  of  to-day. 

25.  Why  is  the  camel  most  generally 
used  in  caravans  ? 


24 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


A  Mountain  "Baby." 

26.  Who  is  the  Karwan-Baschi  ? 

27.  What  is  a  heavy  caravan  ? 

28.  Define  a  light  caravan. 

29.  What  is  meant  by  a  caravan  schedule  ? 

30.  In  what  parts  of  the  world  is  overland  commerce 
now  carried  on  ?       

CHAPTEK  IV. 
Railroad   Coramerce. 

To-day  the  chief  agent  of  land  commerce  is  the 
railroad.  It  has  been  well  said  that  railroads  have 
been  the  greatest  civilizing  agency  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  for  they  have  stretched  their  iron  bands 
from  town  to  town,  crossed  the  widest  rivers, 
threaded  valleys,  climbed  mountains,  tunneled  a 
way  through  inaccessible  cliffs  and  peaks,  *and 
shown  their  great  value  as  a  transporting  agent  in 
every  department  of  commerce.  The  railroad  has 
taught  dilatory  people  many  wholesome  lessons  on 
punctuality,  while  it  has  been  a  great  friend  of 
human  progress  and  industrial  development. 

It  was  James  Watt,  of  Scotland,  who  made  the 


first  application  of  steam  as  a  motive  power,  but  it 
was  George  Stephenson,  of  northern  England,  who 
built  the  first  locomotive.  This  locomotive  was 
built  in  1814,  and  had  a  speed  of  six  miles  an 
hour.  Stephenson  and  Booth  built  the  "  Rocket " 
in  1829.  This  locomotive  weighed  four  and  one- 
quarter  tons,  and  had  a  speed  of  thirty-five  miles 
an  hour.  Tramways  —  wooden  railways  for  four- 
wheeled  vehicles  —  had  been  used  in  the  collier- 
ies of  England  since  1672,  when  Mr.  Beaumont 
constructed  a  tramway  at  the  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne  collieries.  The  first  railroad  for  locomotive 
service  was  the  Stockton  &  Darlington  Railroad 
of  England,  built  by  Edward  Pease  and  George 
Stephenson  in  1825.  The  first  railroad  in 
America  was  the  Quincy  Railroad,  built  from 
the  Quincy  (Mass.)  quarries  to  the  nearest  tide- 
water. This  Quincy  railroad  was  projected  by 
Gridley  Brant,  a  civil  engineer,  and  in  1826  Col. 
T.  H.  Perkins  and  Mr.  Brant  completed  the  road. 
This  first  railroad  of  America  was  four  miles  long, 
and  cost  fifty  thousand  dollars.  It  was  supplied 
with  the  first  turntable  ever  used,  devised  by  Mr. 
Brant,  and  still  in  use  as  late  as  1880. 

The  second  American  railroad  was  laid  from 
the  Mauch  Chunk  (Penn.)  mines  to  the  Lehigh 
river,  a  distance  of  thirteen  miles.  This  road  was 
opened  for  use  in  1827. 

The  third  American  railroad  was  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio  Railroad  of  to-day,  and  was  the  first  rail- 
road authorized  to  carry  on  a  general  transporta- 
tion business.  It  was  begun  July  4th,  1828,  and 
was  to  extend  to  Ellicott's  Mills,  thirteen  miles 


/ 

^ 

^ 

i 

HKi 

Grand  Central  Stat'on,  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


25 


Train  of  Commerce  —  loo  cars  on  New  York  Central  Railroad. 


away.  It  was  soon  completed  to  the  Potomac,  fol- 
lowing the  valley  to  the  Cnmberland  coal  region, 
and  in  a  short  tim.e  was  extended  across  the  moun- 
tains to  Wheeling,  on  the  Ohio  river. 

The  first  locomotive  built  in  America  was  made 
in  Baltimore,  by  that  grand  good  man  who  later  in 
life  founded  an  institute  in  New  York  city  where 
poor  boys  might  get  an  education  and  learn  a 
trade  —  Peter  Cooper.  This  locomotive  was  small, 
had  an  upright  boiler,  and  could  not  have  weighed 
more  than  a  ton,  yet  it  drew  an  open  car  carrying 
the  directors  of  the  railroad  from  Baltimore  to 
Ellicott's  Mills.  This  was  in  1830,  and  we  are 
told  that  it  was  the  first  time  a  locomotive  was  used 
for  passenger  service,  on  either  side  of  the  Atlantic. 
Its  speed  was  rated  at  eighteen  miles  an  hour. 
Little  did  Peter  Cooper  know  what  a  wonderful 
element  of  commerce  he  had  started.  This  same 
road  now  links  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, Washington  and  Chicago  together,  where 
engines  from  fifty  to  ninety  times  larger  than 
Cooper's  draw  long  trains  of  commerce  upon  its 
ribbons  of  steel. 

The  advent  of  the  railroad  was  so  important  to 


the  commercial  world  that  it  will  be  interesting 
and  instructive  to  study  the  cost  and  character  of 
the  different  cars  of  freight  and  passenger  traffic. 

Passenger  engines  vary  greatly  in  size  and 
weight  as  well  as  mechanism,  but  generally  speak- 
ing weigh  from  thirty  to  seventy-five  tons.  Freight 
engines  weigh  from  forty  to  ninety  tons.  The 
larger  engines  are  rapidly  displacing  the  lighter 
engines,  as  the  heavier  power  will  haul  greater 
tonnage.  An  engine  weighing  ninety  tons,  on  a 
level  can  haul  a  load  of  four  thousand  five  hundred 
tons;  but  as  it  is  difficult  to  haul  such  a  tonnage 
in  one  train,  and  as  but  very  short  distances  of 
railroad  track  can  be  level,  the  engine  is  seldom 
worked  to  its  maximum  power. 

We  are  told  that  the  life  of  a  locomotive  depends 
upon  the  conditions  of  the  service.  Where  water 
is  impregnated  with  sulphates  and  other  deleterious 
or  corroding  matter,  the  life  of  a  locomotive  boiler 
is  short, —  sometimes  not  longer  than  ten  years. 
In  good  water  the  life  of  a  boiler  would  be  twice 
this  period.  The  number  of  miles'  service  and  the 
care  given  the  engine  tend  also  to  lengthen  or 
shorten  its  life ;  so  you  see  that  oven  the  approxi- 


S6 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


mate  life  of  an  engine  is  very  hard  to  determine. 
The  cost  of  an  engine  is  also  quite  as  varying,  de- 
pendent upon  tlie  make  of  engine,  weight,  quality 
of  material,  together  with  present  price.  Lighter 
engines  in  1900  cost  from  $0000  to  $12,000,  and 
lieavier  engines  from  $12,000  to  $15,000. 

Cars  in  the  freight  service  are  divided  into  a 
number  of  groups.  Cars  used  for  hauling  coal, 
sand,  cinders,  heavy  iron  and  timbers,  with  simply 
a  bottom  and  low  sides,  are  called  flat  cars,  and 
cost  from  $250  to  $000  and  $700,  according  to 
capacity  and  material  used.  Cars  with  solid  bot- 
tom and  cover,  but  with  slat  sides,  adapted  to  haul- 
ing stock,  are  called  cattle  cars,  and  cost  from  $600 
to  $1000.  Refrigerator  cars  are  made  on  the 
principle  of  an  ice-house,  with  double  sides  padded 
with  material  impervious  to  heat.  These  cars  are 
especially  adapted  for  hauling  meats,  fruits,  and 
cold-storage  merchandise.  Their  cost  varies  from 
$700  to  $1250,  owing  to  their  dimensions.  The 
ordinary  grain  or  box  car  costs  from  $550  to  $800. 
The  freight  caboose,  or  trainmen's  car,  costs  from 
$500  to  $1000. 

Many  railroads  are  now  using  cars  made  of  steel 
—  block  steel  being  used  in  place  of  wood  as  a 
building  material.  That  these  cars  are  made  of 
incombustible  material  renders  them  longer  lived 
and  reduces  the  chances  for  damage  to  freight  in 
a  wreck  or  collision. 

Let  us  now  look  at  the  passenger  service  a  mo- 
ment. A  mail  car  ranges  in  price  from  $2500  to 
$0000,  according  to  dimensions  and  material  used. 
Baggage  cars  cost  from  $2500  to  $4000 ;  chair  cars, 
$3000  to  $8000;  Pullman,  $10,000  to  $20,000. 

From  the  above  figures  we  can  make  an  approxi- 
mate estimate  of  the  cost  of  a  train  of  cars,  either 
freight  or  passenger. 

When  we  realize  that  the  lowest  estimated  cost 
of  making  a  mile  of  railroad  track  on  level  ground 
(fifteen  ties  per  rail-length)  is  $8000,  we  can  form 
sonle  estimate  of  the  enormous  expenditure  of 
money  the  railroad  commerce  of  the  United  States 


of  ^to-day  represents.  Statistics  show  that  the 
United  States  has  fully  190,000  miles  of  rail- 
road, the  average  cost  of  which,  with  bridges, 
is  upward  of  $59,000  per  mile.  The  estimated 
cost  of  tracks  and  rolling-stock  in  our  nation  alone 
is  not  less  than  10,000  millions  of  dollars.  All 
this  vast  outlay  is  later  covered  by  the  revenues 
of  commerce. 

The  auditing  department  of  a  great  American 
railroad  system  rivals  a  Government  department. 

The  earnings  of  the  Pennsylvania  System  in  a 
year  average  about  130  millions  of  dollars;  the 
Vanderbilt  System  —  New  York  Central,  Lake 
Shore,  West  Shore,  Nickel  Plate,  Michigan  Cen- 
tral, Boston  &  Albany,  and  Pittsburg  &  Lake  Erie 
railroads  —  upwards  of  137  millions  of  dollars. 
The  total  receipts  of  the  Federal  Government  for 
the  year  1896  are  given  as  follows: 

Customs $150,000,000 

Internal  revenue 146,000,000 

Total $296,000,000 

This  represents  the  Government  receipts  for  a 
nation  of  75,000,000  people,  but  the  two  railroad 
systems  referred  to  above  represent  receipts  to  the 
amount  of  $267,000,000.  If  a  third  system  —  the 
Santa  Fe  —  be  added,  the  Government  receipts 
would  be  exceeded. 

When  one  realizes  that  there  are  upwards  of 
forty  different  railroad  cooperations  in  our  nation, 
he  can  begin  to  form  a  conception  of  the  tons  upon 
tons  of  freight  as  well  as  express  handled  by  our 
railroads. 

The  trunk  lines  of  the  United  States  are  to-day 
great  arteries  of  commerce,  which,  with  their  trib- 
utary lines,  form  a  complete  system  of  trade  circu- 
lation, reaching  to  all  parts  of  our  great  nation. 
Where  it  took  a  good  week  to  travel  from  Xew 
York  to  Buffalo,  the  Empire  Express  now  trans- 
ports one  from  New  York  to  Buffalo  in  eight  hours 
and  fifteen  minutes,  a  distance  of  440  miles.  One 
can  buy  a  through  ticket  from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco,  board  the  train  at  New  York  Monday 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


morning,  and  Thursday  night  eat  supper  at  San 
Francisco.  The  passenger  can  eat  his  meals  in  a 
jiahice  diner,  take  his  bath,  read  his  book,  write  his 
letters,  read  the  news,  and  receive  every  other  con- 
\enience  of  a  modern  home  while  being  transported 
through  the  country  at  from  forty  to  sixty  miles  an 
hour.  Undoubtedly  the  greatest  railroad  in  our 
nation  from  a  commercial  standpoint  is  the  Xew 
York  Central,  that  has  four  tracks  from  Buffalo  to 
Xew  York,  and  in  the  busy  season  of  the  year  runs 
from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  trains  daily. 
( Tliree  hundred  and  twenty  passenger  trains  leave 
the  Xew  Y^'ork  depot  daily.)  It  is  no  unusual  thing 
for  a  single  locomotive  to  haul  through  the  Mohawk 
Valley  over  this  road  ninety  thousand  bushels  of 
grain.  This  is  the  pioneer  railroad  of  Xew  York, 
its  first  train,  in  1831,  making  regular  trips  from 
Albany  to  Schenectady.     (See  cut  below.) 

The  mileage  of  the  New  York  Central  in  1900 
was  2294  miles,  but  it  is  the  only  four-track  rail- 
road in  our  nation,  and  forms  the  direct  connection 
between  the  rail  and  lake  port  of  Buffalo  and  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  hence  its  commercial  importance. 

The  greatest  railroad  in  mileage  and  amount  of 
business  is  perhaps  the  Pennsylvania  System  with 
its  10,500  miles  of  track,  and  connecting  the  great 
trade  centers  of  ]*^ew  Y^ork,  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, Pittsburg,  Buffalo,  Cincinnati,  Cleveland, 
Toledo,  Chicago,  Indianapolis,  and  St.  Louis. 


DeWitt  Clinton  Express. 

(The  first  steam  railway  train  In  the  State  of  New  York.) 


The    ^::.^.:-    _;„-    L..r.;u„„    ^,,;.    .^„2). 

The  first  railroad  to  connect  the  East  and  the 
West  was  the  Union  Pacific,  completed  in  1869. 
To-day  we  have  five  transcontinental  lines  in  our 
own  nation,  and  with  the  Canadian  Pacific,  six 
transcontinental  railroads  in  America. 

The  most  picturesque  and  remarkable  railroad 
enterprise  of  recent  years  is  the  Alaskan  Railway, 
that  extends  from  Skagway,  in  the  northwest  part 
of  Alaska,  over  the  White  Pass  to  Lake  Bennett, 
British  Columbia.  It  is  called  the  White  Pass  & 
Y^ukon  Railroad.  It  was  built  in  the  winter-time, 
with  the  thermometer  ranging  between  thirty  and 
fifty  degrees  below  zero,  and  its  completion  is  a 
monument  to  the  untiring  energies  of  Mr.  E.  G, 
Hawkins.  Although  the  road  is  only  forty  miles 
long,  its  construction  would  scarcely  be  paid  for  if 
the  entire  road-bed  have  a  layer  of  fivenlollar  bills 
laid  end  to  end,  from  Skagway  to  Lake  Bennett. 

Probably  one  of  the  clearest  illustrations  of  en- 
gineering skill  in  recent  railroad  building  is  shown 
in  the  construction  of  the  tunnel  through  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains  on  the  Great  Xorthern  Railroad. 

On  Saturday,  September  8,  1900,  Galveston, 
Texas,  as  well  as  the  surrounding  country,  was 
overwhelmed  by  a  West-India  hurricane.  The 
first  aid  came  to  the  stricken  city  from  the  rail- 
ways. The  Rock  Island  started  a  train  of  supplies 
from  Chicago,  while  the  South  Texas  lines,  the  M. 
K.  &  T.  and  the  Santa  Fe  joined  in  the  urgent  work 


28 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


or  reopening  means  of  transportation,  bringing  in 
supplies  and  transporting  refugees.  In  twelve 
(lajs  the  tracks  that  had  been  swept  away  for  miles 
had  been  restored,  a  two-mile  bridge  had  been  built 
across  the  bay,  and  regular  communication  between 
Galveston  and  the  world  resumed.  This  shows  the 
power  of  railroads  as  rebuilders. 

Outside  of  the  United  States  the  railway  mile- 
age in  1900  was  estimated  to  be  234,647  miles. 
Baden,  Brazil,  Brunswick,  Bulgaria,  Ceylon,  Co- 
himbia,  Finland,  Roumania,  Russia,  South-Afri- 
can Transvaal,  South  Australia,  Tasmania,  Vene- 
zuela and  Victoria  own  their  entire  systems  of  rail- 
way. 

Forty-two  countries  have  public  railways,  aggre- 
gating 147,000  miles,  while  twenty-nine  have  pri- 
vate lines. 

The  railway  mileage  b^-  continents  January  1, 
1898,  was  as  follows: 

1.  North  America  (United  States,  190,000) 211,000 

2.  Europe 163,000 

S.Asia 31,200 

4.  South  America 27,000 

5.  Australia 14,500 

6.  Africa 10,000 

Total 456,700 

In  North  America  we  find  that  the  United  States 
has  the  greatest  railway  mileage ;  Canada  second, 
with  her  great  transcontinental  line,  the  Canadian 
Pacific,  and  its  numerous  connecting  lines ;  and 
Mexico  third,  with  the  Mexican  Central,  Mexican 
i^ational  and  Mexican  Southern  railroads  connect- 
ing her  capital  commercially  with  all  parts  of  the 
republic,  and  the  Interoceanic  Railroad  with  its 
tributary  lines,  connecting  Pacific  and  Atlantic 
seaboards.  In  South  America,  the  Argentine  Re- 
public ranks  first,  with  many  important  lines  con- 
necting the  metropolis  of  the  continent  —  Buenos 
Ayres  —  with  all  parts  of  the  republic.  Brazil 
ranks  second,  most  of  its  lines  connecting  Atlantic 
ports  with  one  another  and  the  coffee  districts  and 
diamond  fields  with  the  coasts. 

Germany  has  more  railways  than  any  other  Eu- 


ropean nation,  with  France,  Russia,  Great  Britain, 
Austria,  Italy,  Spain  and  Sweden  following,  in 
the  order  named. 

In  Asia,  India  leads,  and  Siberia,  Japan  and 
Turkey  in  Asia  follow,  in  order  given. 

MiscellaueouB  Data  on  Railroads. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  the  student  to  know 
of  some  of  the  most  important  railroads  sur- 
veyed and  now  being  constructed,  or  whose  con- 
struction will  be  entered  upon  in  the  near  future. 
We  will  speak  of  the  five  that  to-day  are  looked 
upon  as  feats  of  great  engineering  skill.  First  is 
the  Trans-Siberian  road,  that  is  expected  to  re- 
duce the  time  for  the  world  trip  from  sixty-five 
to  less  than  thirty  days. 

As  far  back  as  1858,  that  great  Russian  states- 
man. General  Muraviof,  urged  the  building  of  a 
railroad  to  quicken  passage  to  ports  of  Tartary. 
The  completion  of  the  Ural  Railroad  in  1880 
from  Perm,  in  Russia,  to  Tinmen,  in  Siberia  (on 
the  Tobal  river),  revived  the  discussion  of  a  trans- 
continental line. 

The  cost  of  a  Siberian  route  to  the  ocean  was 
discussed,  different  routes  surveyed,  and  finally 
an  imperial  order  came,  March  17th,  1891,  for 
plans  for  construction  of  a  Trans-Siberian  rail- 
road to  be  formed  and  work  upon  the  road  to  begin 
as  soon  as  practicable.  The  first  work  on  this 
great  road  was  begim  at  its  eastern  terminus  — 
Vladivostok,  May  12,  1892.  The  work  pro- 
gressed slowly  up  to  1895.  Two  reasons  can  be 
assigned  for  this:  lack  of  general  interest  in  the 
project,  and  tardy  concessions ;  also,  lack  of  mod- 
ern machinery  for  carrying  on  the  work.  A  I^Tew 
York  engineer  introduced  American  construction 
machinery  and  American  methods,  which  caused 
a  lively  trade  in  railroad  supplies  to  spring  up 
between  the  Russian  Government  and  America, 
and  likewise  gave  impetus  to  the  work.  About 
the  same  time  the  concessions  made  to  Russia  by 
China,  at  the  close  of  the  Chinese-Japanese  war, 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


29 


put  new  energy  into  the  construction  work,  and 
the  near  future  will  see  the  road  completed. 

Eussia  entered  into  a  contract  with  China,  in 
1800,  to  build  a  railroad  through  the  province  of 
Manchuria.  The  railroad  when  completed  is  to 
have  a  Chinese  president,  and  after  eighty  years 
the  entire  ownership  of  the  road  is  to  pass  to  the 
Chinese  Government  on  payment  to  the  Kussian 
Government  the  market  value  of  the  railroad. 

In  1898  Eussia  leased  Port  Arthur  and  the 
peninsula — the  Liao-tung — upon  which  it  stands. 
This  gives  Eussia  a  very  valuable  Pacific  port, 
open  all  the  year.  This  road  begins  53  miles  east 
of  Chita,  and  runs  southeast  600  miles  to  Harbin, 
which  station  is  500  miles  from  Vladivostok,  and 
is  connected  with  it  by  rail. 

The  Chinese  Eastern  crosses  the  Sungari  at 
Harbin,  and,  turning  south,  continues  in  a  direct 
course,  650  miles,  to  Port  Arthur.  This  will  be 
an  important  part  of  the  main  Siberian  line. 
The  Trans-Siberian  Eailroadi  has  its  official  Euro- 
pean starting-point  at  Cheliabinsk,  within  the 
Ural  Mountains. 

The  Eastern  Chinese  Eailway  is  the  Port  Ar- 
thur route,  and  is  under  a  separate  management. 

The  time  from  London  to  Hong  Kong  via  Suez 
Canal  is  twenty-five  days;  via  the  Canadian  Pa- 
cific Eailroad  is  thirty-three  days ;  via  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Eailroad  the  time  will  be  still  less. 
The  stations  on  the  road  are  neat  and  comfortable, 
no  two  alike,  and  compare  favorably  with  the 
very  best  depots  and  station-houses  in  Europe  and 
America.  The  traveler  soon  realizes  that  a  rail- 
road restaurant  along  this  road  is  one  of  the  lux- 
uries of  travel,  and  that  a  great  feast  can  be  en- 
joyed in  handsome  dining-rooms  at  reasonable 
rates. 

This  road  crosses  the  great  rivers  of  Siberia  at 
or  a  little  below  the  head  of  navigation,  thus 
making  possible  extensive  water  as  well  as  land 
commerce.  Together  these  indicate  the  establish- 
ing of  new  and  large  commercial  cities. 


Second^  we  will  name  the  Cape  to  Cairo  Eail- 
road, of  Africa.  This  is  the  last  continent  to  be 
opened  to  modern  civilization  aod  trade.  This 
road  is  divided  into  four  great  construction  sec- 
tions, as  follows: 

1st  Division  —  Cape  Town  to  Buluwayo  — 
1360  miles.  This  is  now  completed  and  in  oper- 
ation. 

2d  Division  —  Buluwayo  to  Abercorn  —  960 
miles.      This  section  is  partially  completed. 

3d  Division  —  From  north  end  of  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika to  Khartoum  — 1500  miles.  Now  un- 
der construction. 

4:th  Division  —  Erom  Khartoum  to  Cairo  — 
1050  miles.  This  section  is  completed  and  being 
operated. 

Of  the  total  distance,  all  but  200  miles  passes 
through  British  territory.  This  route  is  mainly 
along  the  "bacb  of  the  central  plateau,"  or 
through  the  African  river  valleys,  often  fever- 
infested  or  filled!  with  jungle  thickets,  the 
home  of  the  largest  and  most  ferocious  of  African 
beasts.  Eive  great  bridges  must  be  built  over 
large  rivers.  When  the  first  section  was  being 
built,  the  engineers  were  hurrying  to  get  out  of 
the  way  of  the  annual  floods,  and  sent  a  rush  order 
to  English  manufacturers.  Word  came  back  that 
it  would  require  at  least  six  and  probably  twelve 
months  to  fill  the  order,  which  called  for  the  iron 
framework  for  the  Atbara  bridge.  An  American 
engineer  prevailed  upon  the  management  to  try 
an  American  firm  for  bridge  iron.  A  Philadel- 
phia firm  sent  word  that  the  iron  would  be  ready 
forty  days  after  the  order  was  placed, —  and  thus 
the  iron-work  for  Atbara  bridge  was  made  by  an 
American  firm  and  the  bridge  huilt  in  less  than 
four  months. 

When  the  entire  Cape  to  Cairo  Eailroad  is  put 
in  running  order,  with  the  lateral  branch  routes 
already  planned,  it  wili  be  the  most  unique  system 
of  railroad  connectiofife  yet  shown  in  any  conti- 
nent.    Besides  Cape  Town,  Cape  Colony  has  ter- 


30 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


minal  branch  lines  reaching  Port  Elizabeth,  East 
London,  and  Port  Alfred. 

Natal  was  the  fourth  branch  line  running  to 
Durban,  the  Delagoa  Bay  Railroad  is  the  fifth, 
and  the  Beird  Railroad  is  the  sixth  one  now  com- 
pleted, while  the  Ujiji  &  Bagamoyo  Railroad, 
the  Uganda  &  Mombasa  and  the  Berber  &  Suakin 
railroads  are  under  construction. 

The  Cape  to  Cairo  Railroad  will  be  the  spine 
of  continental  commerce,  with  its  lateral  branches 
on  either  side  as  ribs  of  trade,  that  shall  form 
the  basis  of  a  mighty  trade  and  be  the  means  of 
transmitting  to  Africa  the  modern  civilization 
that  accompanies  transportation. 

The  Sahara  Railroad  of  the  French  and  the 
West-African  Railroad  of  the  Germans  will,  in 
the  new  century,  open  new  avenues  of  trade  and 
reveal  to  Africa  and  the  world  the  greatness  of 
her  resources. 

Third.  The  Euphrates  Valley  Railroad  de- 
serves mention.  Many  years  ago  the  great 
French  engineer,  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  proposed 
to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  the  building  of  a  rail- 
road,—  a  railroad  that  should  reach  from  Con- 
stantinople to  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  Sultan 
could  not  see  the  practical  value  of  such  an  ex- 
penditure of  time  and  cash,  and  we  see  De  Lesseps 
bring  the  Suez  Canal  into  being  instead  of  the 
railroad  that  he  the  more  earnestly  desired  to 
construct.  England  sought  permission  from  the 
Porte  in  18Y8  to  build  the  road,  but  was  refused. 
Later,  Russia  tried  to  gain  a  similar  privilege, 
but  still  the  Sultan  said  no. 

In  1888  a  Berlin  bank  organized  a  syndicate 
that  secured  concessions  from  the  Porte  for  build- 
ing a  railroad  from  a  point  opposite  Constanti- 
nople to  Angora,  and  later  to  Konieh  (ancient 
Iconium). 

In  1892  the  Antolian  Railway  was  in  opera- 
tion, running  trains  to  Angora.  The  German  cap- 
italists have  now  obtained  ^hother  concession  from 
the  Turkish   Sultan,  permitting  the  building  of 


the  Euphrates  Valley  Railroad.  This  road  is  sur- 
veyed, and  is  now  being  constructed.  It  is 
to  run  from  Konieh  to  the  Taurus  mountains, 
where  it  passes  through  the  historic  '"  Cicilian 
Gates"  (a  pass  in  the  Taurus  mountains),  turns 
now  to  Aleppo,  thence  to  Bagdad,  1000  miles  from 
Konieh,  and  down  the  Euphrates  to  Bassorah,  on 
the  Persian  Gulf,  400  miles  below  Bagdad. 

The  Russian  Government  in  the  last  few  years 
has  completed  a  Trans-Caucasus  railway  from 
Batum,  on  the  Black  sea,  through  Tiflis,  to  Baku, 
on  the  Caspian  sea,  and  from  the  east  shores  of 
the  Caspian  through  Bokhara  to  Samarkand. 

Russia  has  gained  permission  from  the  Sultan 
to  construct  a  railway  from  Kars,  a  Russian  for- 
tress in  the  Caucasus,  to  Erzeroum,  a  Turkisli 
stronghold  in  Armenia.  Russia's  policy  is  to 
push  this  line  on  west  to  meet  the  Euphrates  Val- 
ley Railroad  at  Angora,  and  make  rail  connec- 
tions east  via  Tabris  to  Teheran,  the  Persian  cap- 
ital. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  building  of  the  Euphrates 
Valley  Railroad  will  introduce  the  steam  engine 
to  all  parts  of  historic  Asia,  and  either  cut  off  or 
cause  the  abandonment  of  the  largest  and  most 
important  trade  caravan  routes  that  are  operated 
to-day. 

Fourth.  The  London,  Bombay  &  Hong  Kong- 
Railway  is  one  of  the  boldest  projects  now  being 
considered.  This  road,  as  projected,  starts  from 
London,  passes  through  a  tunnel  under  the  Straits 
of  Dover,  south  through  France  and  Spain  to  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar,  under  which  the  projected 
road  goes  into  Africa.  This  road  now  turns  to  the 
east,  passes  through  Algeria,  Tripoli,  Tunis,  and 
Egypt,  crosses  the  Suez  Canal  into  Asia,  crosses 
the  Arabian  desert  and  forms  a  junction  with 
the  Euphrates  Valley  Railroad  near  Bassorah. 
The  road  now  runs  through  Persia  and  Beloochis- 
tan,  skirting  the  Arabian  sea  to  Bombay,  and 
crosses  India  to  Calcutta.  The  road  turns  up 
through  Burmah,  enters  China  through  a  pass  in 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


31 


St.  Louis  Union  Depot. 


the  Himalaya  mountains,  and  runs  through  south- 
east China  to  the  coast.  The  road  is  projected  to 
reach  the  coast  in  the  vicinity  of  Hong  Kong. 
This  road  as  projected  passes  through  the  ruins 
of  ancient  Carthage,  over  ground  traversed  by 
Alexander's  conquering  army,  passes  by  ancient 
Babylon,  through  the  supposed  site  of  Eden's 
Garden,  and  across  the  land  sacred  to  the  memory 
of  all  the  Oriental  nations  of  antiquity. 

Fifth.  The  Pan-American  Railway.  To  us 
this  is  the  most  important  of  the  five  named,  and 
in  length  will  almost  equal  the  mileage  of  both  the 
Cape  to  Cairo  and  Trans-Siberian  railroads. 

The  Pan-American  Congress  of  1889  arranged 
for  a  commission  to  investigate  the  feasibility  of 
an  intercontinental  railway.  Eleven  countries 
are  represented  in  this  commission,  which  has 
now  completed  the  survey.  The  survey  was  di- 
vided into  the  following  divisions: 

1st  section  —  New  York  city  to  Laredo,  Texas 
—  2094  miles. 


2d  section  —  Laredo  through  Mexico  to  Agulta, 
Guatemala  — 1644  miles. 

3d  section  —  Agulta  to  Rio  Golfito,  Colombia 
— 1043  miles. 

4th  section  —  Rio  Golfito  to  Buenos  Ayres,  Ar- 
gentine Republic  —  5447  miles. 

Fifty-four  hundred  and  fifty  miles  of  this  road 
will  have  to  be  constructed.  Traversing  the  cof- 
fee lands  of  Central  America,  passing  through 
the  great  corn-fields  of  Colombia,  the  mining  re- 
gions of  Ecuador  and  Peru,  and  giving  quick 
transportation  to  Argentine's  cattle  and  wheat,  the 
road  will  prove  a  boon  to  South  America  and  a 
source  of  profit  to  its  owners.  Thus  the  agricul- 
tural resources  of  South  America  will  be  devel- 
oped as  never  before,  and  its  soil,  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  any  crop,  will  be  advantageously  worked 
by  this  great  transporting  agency. 

A  great  American  has  said :  "  This  is  an  age 
of  transportation.  Transportation  underlies  ma- 
terial  prosperity   in   every    department   of   com- 


32 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


merce.  Without  transportation,  commerce  would 
be  impossible.  Those  states  and  nations  are  rich, 
powerful  and  enlightened  whose  transportation 
facilities  are  best  and  most  extended." 

We  see  the  importance  of  these  great  railroad 
projects  that  have  taken  definite  shape,  and  all 
will  probably  be  completed  within  the  present 
decade. 

These  railroads  will  mark  the  greatest  tri- 
umphs of  the  steam  railroad  vet  known,  and  will 
open  up  vast  areas  to  the  developing  agencies  of 
modern  commerce. 

aUESTION     SUMMARY. 

1.  Who  built  the  first  locomotive? 

2.  Where  and  when  was  the  first  tramway  built  in  Eng- 
land ? 

3.  What  is  a  tramway  ? 

4.  When  and  where  was  the  first  railway  in  America  ? 

5.  What  was  the  first  railway  authorized  to  do  a  gen- 
eral transportation  business  ? 

6.  Name  the  termini  of  this  railroad  to-day. 

7.  What  commercial  cities  are  connected  by  this  rail- 
road? 

8.  What  can  you  say  of  the  railroad  as  a  factor  in  com- 
merce ? 

9.  Discuss  weight  of  locomotives  of  modern  railroads. 

10.  What  can  you  say  of  hauling  capacity  or  power  of 
locomotives  ? 

11.  Upon  what  does  the  life  of  a  locomotive  depend  ? 

12.  Name  the  different  kinds  of  cars  used  in  passenger 
service,  with  some  facts  about  each. 

13.  Discuss  cars  in  the  freight  service. 

14.  What  is  the  modern  steel  car,  and  what  can  you  say 
of  its  use  ? 

15.  What  can  you  say  of  the  auditing  department  of  a 
railroad  system  ? 

16.  What  do  we  mean  by  the  auditing  department? 

17.  Name  ten  trunk  lines  of  the  United  States,  with 
termini  of  each. 

18.  What  cities  of  commercial  importance  do  each  con- 
nect ? 

19.  Why  is  the  N.  Y.  Central  Railroad  so  important 
commercially  ? 

20.  Compare  time  in  transit  from  New  York  to  Buffalo 
in  1800  and  in  1900. 

21.  In  1800  had  any  one  crossed  the  American  conti- 
nent?   .4ns.,  No. 


22.  Take  train  at  Boston  and  reach  Pacific  coast  by  six 
different  routes,  naming  important  commercial  centers 
passed  through,  railways  traveled  over,  and  the  Pacific 
port  reached. 

23.  Discuss  the  AVhite  Pass  &  Yukon  Railroad. 

24.  Tell  about  the  Cascade  tunnel,  on  the  Great  North- 
ern Railroad. 

25.  What  incident  shows  the  rebuilding  and  construc- 
tive power  of  railroads  ? 

26.  Where  is  one  of  the  greatest  railway  stations  in  the 
world,  and  what  can  you  say  of  it  ? 

27.  Name  the  continents  in  order  of  railway  mileage. 

28.  The  United  States  in  1900  had  190,000  miles  of  rail- 
way ;  what  proportion  was  that  of  th§  world's  mileage  ? 

29.  What  are  the  ranking  railway  countries  of  South 
America  ? 

30.  What  are  the  ranking  railway  countries  of  Europe? 

31.  What  are  the  ranking  railway  countries  of  Asia? 

32.  Name  five  transcontinental  railroads,  and  locate 
each. 

33.  Indicate  six  different  railway  routes  from  Boston 
to  the  Pacific  coast. 

34.  Name  the  important  commercial  centers  passed 
through,  important  rivers  and  mountains  crossed,  and 
the  Pacific  port  reached  by  each  route. 

35.  Can  you  name  any  large  railway  tunnels  besides 
the  Cascade  tunnel?  Ans.,  St.  Gothard  and  Simplon 
tunnels,  in  the  Alps,  of  Europe  ;  Hoosac  tunnel,  in  Mas- 
sachusetts; Alpine  tunnel,  in  Colorado;  and  Port  Huron 
tunnel,  under  Detroit  river. 

36.  Learn  the  following  commercial  terms  : 

B.  &  A.  R.  R. — Boston  &  Albany  Railroad. 
Erie  Route  —  Chicago  &  Erie  Railroad. 
M.  C.  R.  R. — Michigan  Central  Railroad. 
Lake  Shore  Route  —  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  South- 
ern Railroad. 
N.  Y.  C.  R.  R.— New  York  Central  Railroad. 

B.  &  O.— Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad. 

C.  &  N. — Chicago  &  Northwestern  Railroad. 

C.  B.  &  Q. — Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  Railroad. 

C.  M.  &  St.  P.  R.  R.— Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St. 
Paul  Railroad. 

Rock  Island  Route — Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pa- 
cific Railroad. 

N.  P.  R.  R. — Northern  Pacific  Railroad. 

G.  N.  R.  R. —  Great  Nortliern  Railroad. 

U.  P.  R.  R. —  Union  Pacific  Railroad. 

Maple  Leaf — Chicago  &  Great  Western  Railroad. 

C.  &  A.  R.  R.— Chicago  &  Alton  Railroad. 

A.  T.  &  S.  F.,  or  Santa  Fe  Route— Atchison,  Topeka 
&  Santa  Fe  Railroad. 

Mo.  Pac.  R.  R. — Missouri  Pacific  Railroad. 

I.  C.  Route — Illinois  Central  Railroad. 

L.  &  N,  Route —Louisville  &  Nashville  Railroad. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


33 


M.  &  O.— Mobile  &  Ohio  Railroad. 

Queen  &  Orescent  — Cincinnati,  New  Orleans 
&  Texas  Pacific  Railroad. 

N.  &  W.  R.  R.— Norfolk  &  Western  Railroad. 

C.  &  O.  R.  R.-  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Railroad. 

S.  R. —  Southern  Railway. 

A.  C.  L.— Atlantic  Coast  Line  Railroad. 

S.  A.  L.— Seaboard  Air  Line  Railroad. 

Plant  Route— Plant  System  of  Railways. 

M.   K.   &  T.,  or  "Katy"   Route— Missouri, 

Kansas  &  Texas  Railroad. 

37.  What  railroad  now  has  a  locomotive  70  feet 

long,  16  feet  high,  that  weighs  260,000  pounds,  and 

can  haul  a  train  carrying  the  harvest  from  5000  acres 

of  wheat?    ytns.,  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe. 


CHAPTER  V. 


Remarkable  Railway  Crossing  at  Newcastle,  England  — 1135  Trains 
V  Daily. 


Important   Aids   to    Commerce. 

1.   The  Postal  Service. 

The  fast  mail  of  to-daj  is  one  of  the  great  aids 
to  domestic  commerce.  The  modern  postal  system 
is  supposed  to  have  had  its  origin  in  Great  Britain, 
600  years  ago. 

Letters  were  carried  at  regular  intervals  on  des- 
ignated routes,  the  cost  of  transportation  being 
paid  by  the  one  receiving  the  mail  matter. 

All  the  mail  of  that  early  day  was  carried  by 
footmen. 

When  the  American  colonies  were  established, 
the  English  settlers  brought  their  custom  of  mail 
transmission  with  them.  Records  in  Massachu- 
setts show  a  definite  system  of  mail  transmission 
and  delivery  in  its  provinces  as  early  as  1639. 
Virginia,  by  colonial  law,  provided  for  a  planta- 
tion post  in  1657. 

A  monthly  post  between  Boston  and  N^ew  York 
was  established  in  1672.  Most  of  the  coast  colonies 
were  reached  by  regular  post  before  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 

Regular  post-roads  and  uniform  rates  were  es- 
tablished by  Dr.  Franklin,  whom  the  British 
Crown  appointed  Postmaster-General  in  1753. 

He  improved  the  overland  mail,  and  arranged 
for  the  ocean  mail  to  be  carried  only  on  the  swift- 
est  sailing   vessels    plying   between    Europe    and 


America.  He  aided  navigators  to  plat  new  routes 
across  the  Atlantic,  that  should  either  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  winds  or  lessen  the  distance.  In 
this  way  the  time  for  a  passage  to  the  home-land 
was  shortened  several  days,  increasing  the  utility 
of  the  mail  service. 

One  of  the  early  acts  of  Congress  was  an  act 
establishing  a  schedule  for  lett;er  postage.  The 
cost  of  transmission  was  based  on  the  distance  to  be 
carried.  To-day  the  transmission  depends  upon 
the  weight  and  character  of  the  mail  transmitted. 

The  advent  of  the  railway  in  the  Eastern  States 
introduced  a  new  messenger  for  our  mail  service, 
and  settlements  in  the  West  sent  the  "  Pony  Ex- 
press "  to  those  plains  and  mountains  in  the  path 
of  advancing  civilization. 

The  organizing  of  postoffices  and  marking  out 
post-roads  in  new  settlements  has  been  a  duty  the 
Postal  Department  has  always  been  prompt  to 
perform.  When  the  gold  excitement  called  gold- 
seekers  to  the  Pacific  coast,  and  San  Francisco 
became  a  city  of  thousands  almost  immediately,, 
the  Government  Postal  Department  was  found 
prompt  in  the  delivery  of  its  Eastern  mail.  Across 
the  plains  and  over  the  mountains  of  our  Great 
West  were  established  post-roads  that  gave  a  re- 
liable mail  service  a  generation  before  the  tele- 
graph and  the  railroad  crossed  the  continent.    The 


34 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


mail  carrier  was  a  fearless,  swift  rider,  supplied 
with  fresh  ponies  at  regular  stations  and  relieved 
hy  another  carrier  at  division  points. 

This  "  Pony  Express  "  was  established  at  great 
cost,  and  the  carriers  who  served  the  public  were 
frequently  beset  by  highwaymen,  chased  by  In- 
dians, and  fatigued  or  benumbed  by  inclement 
weather.  These  efficient  messengers  took  pride  in 
transmitting  the  mail  across  their  di\nsions  in  as 
quick  time  as  running  horses  could  make. 

The  stage-coach  in  many  places  served  not  only 
to  convey  passengers  but  also  the  United  States 
mails.  The  establishment  of  the  railway  post- 
office  in  1804  gradually  supplanted  the  footman, 
pony  express,  and  stage-coach.  To-day,  scarcely 
a  railroad  can  be  found  that  is  not  also  a  post-road 
for  the  United  States. 

The  railway  mail  clerks  gain  their  position  by 
examinations  that  determine  their  fitness  for  the 
work. 

To-day  there  are  over  8000  employes  in  this 
branch  of  the  system,  handling  upwards  of  thirteen 
million  pieces  of  mail  annually.  The  delivery 
system  of  the  department  was  established  in  1863 
for  the  larger  commercial  centers,  and  for  the 
express  purpose  of  facilitating  business. 

To-day  the  delivery  system  numbers  14,000  car- 
riers, who  deliver  the  mail  at  the  residence  or  store 
from  two  to  eight  times  a  day  in  all  commercial 
centers. 

Another  important  branch  is  the  money-order 
division,  which  Postmaster-General  Smith  declares 
to  be  the  greatest  of  international  clearing-houses. 
Through  this  division  money  can  be  sent  to  all 
parts  of  the  commercial  world.  Over  200  million 
dollars  is  annually  sent  through  this  department, 
with  a  loss  of  less  than  fifty  dollars  a  year  by 
fraud.  In  18Y4  the  leading  commercial  nations 
established  the  Postal  Union,  which  fixed  uniform 
rates  and  conditions  of  transmission  of  mails  from 
one  country  to  another. 

The  Superintendent  of  Foreign  Mails  for  the 


United  States  sends  the  mails  only  on  the  fastest 
steamers  to  foreign  parts.  A  list  of  the  designated 
steamers  is  sent  to  each  postoffice  in  the  nation  on 
railway  connections,  each  month. 

In  case  a  letter  fails  in  delivery  and  the  sender's 
name  is  not  known,  it  is  then  sent  to  the  Dead 
Letter  Office,  at  Washington,  D.  G.,  where  it  is 
opened,  returned  to  writer  of  same,  or  for- 
warded to  the  one  whom  the  letter  indicates  that 
it  should  be  sent  to.  This  office  is  reported  to  re- 
ceive 20,000  "  misdirected,  unaddressed  or  un- 
claimed "  letters  daily,  and  to  return  to  senders 
one  million  dollars'  worth  of  drafts,  stamps,  and 
commercial  paper  annually. 

The  Postal  Auditing  Office  employs  500  clerks, 
and  is  declared  to  be  the  largest  accounting  office 
in  the  world.  Here  the  quarterly  reports  of  the 
nearly  80,000  postoffices  of  our  nation  are  exam- 
ined. The  accounts  now  exceed  500  million  dol- 
lars annually.  The  entire  Postoffice  Department 
through  its  200,000  employes  handles  nearly  six 
and  one-quarter  billion  pieces  of  mail.  Post- 
master-General Smith  declares :  "  The  Postal  es- 
tablishment of  the  United  States  is  the  greatest 
business  concern  in  the  world.  It  handles  more 
pieces,  employs  more  men,  spends  more  money, 
brings  in  more  revenue,  uses  more  agencies,  reaches 
more  homes,  involves  more  interests,  than  any 
other  human  organization,  public  or  private.  The 
postal  service  of  England,  France  and  Germany 
includes  the  telegraph,  and  yet  the  postal  business 
in  this  country  surpasses  both  post  and  telegraph 
in  any  of  these  lands." 

2.    The  Telegraph. 

Probably  we  could  scarcely  name  a  greater  aid 
to  commerce  than  the  telegraph,  which  annihi- 
lates space  and  is  an  instantaneous  messenger. 

The  business  world  owes  its  debt  of  gratitude 
to  the  ability,  energy  and  persistency  of  Professor 
S.  F.  B.  Morse,  who  gave  the  lightning  a  language 
and  business  this  quick  errand-boy. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


35 


From  early  boyhood  Samuel  Morse  was  es- 
pecially interested  in  electricity,  and  on  entering 
Yale  he  carried  on  experiments  in  electricity  in 
Professor  Day's  laboratory  under  the  latter's  di- 
rection. 

Being  both  a  sculptor  and  a  painter,  Professor 
Morse  was  given  the  chair  of  Fine  Arts  in  the 
University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  in  1835. 
He  continued  to  carry  on  experiments  in  his 
favorite  science  in  his  laboratory. 

While  returning  in  a  packet-ship  from  a  Euro- 
pean trip  in  1832,  Professor  Morse  invented  his 
instrument  for  talking  by  electricity.  Although 
in  mid-ocean,  it  worked  perfectly.  In  his  New 
York  laboratory  he  made  a  telegraph  line  one- 
half  mile  long,  in  1835.  Transmission  and  regis- 
tration were  perfect.  Here  he  devised  his  dash 
alphabet,  and  made  it  practical  on  his  laboratory 
line. 

Professor  Morse  in  1837  applied  to  Congress 
for  aid  to  build  a  telegraph  line  from  Washington 
to  Baltimore.  Not  receiving  encouragement  from 
this  source,  he  converted  all  his  property  into 
money,  and  used  it  in  perfecting  his  instruments 
and  pushing  his  enterprise.  With  little  or  no 
encouragement  from  the  business  world,  unable 
to  interest  Congress,  reduced  to  such  abject  pov- 
erty that  he  sometimes  had  but  one  meal  a  day, 
this  inventor,  whose  telegraph  has  been  the  great- 
est modern  agent  of  commerce,  went  through  a 
struggle  that  would  have  crushed  a  less  persist- 
ent man. 

A  bill  passed  Congress  in  March,  1843,  ap- 
propriating $30,000  for  the  purpose  of  "  con- 
structing a  line  of  electric  magnetic  telegraph " 
from  the  capitol  at  Washington  to  Baltimore. 

Professor  Morse  was  given  direction  of  the 
work,  and  on  May  24,  1844,  he  told  Miss  Ells- 
worth, daughter  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents, 
he  was  ready  for  the  message  he  had  promised  her 
the  privilege  of  dictating.  This  first  message  sent 
over  the  wires  was,  "  What  hath  God  wrought  ?  " 


In  1847  the  telegraph  was  introduced  into  Ger- 
many, and  from  there  throughout  the  Eastern 
Continent.  The  delay  in  transmitting  telegrams 
from  one  country  to  another,  and  the  different 
scale  of  rates,  led  to  the  establishment  of  an  In- 
ternational Bureau  of  Telegraphs  in  1865, 

This  Bureau  of  the  world's  telegraphs  is  lo- 
cated at  Berne,  Switzerland,  and  has  established 
a  uniform  schedule  of  rates,  made  possible  more 
rapid  transmission  of  international  messages,  and 
so  systematized  the  work  of  the  telegraph  that 
from  any  telegraph  office  a  message  can  be  sent 
to  any  other  telegraph  office  in  the  world.  Prior 
to  the  formation  of  the  Bureau  the  sender  of  an 
international  message  could  not  know  the  cost  of 
the  telegram  to  point  of  destination,  and  an  ap- 
palling list  of  charges  in  many  different  kinds  of 
money  often  greeted  the  receiver  at  the  other  end. 

The  Bureau  has  made  the  money  unit  the  franc, 
and  has  codified  the  charges  so  that  the  sender 
may  now  know  the  exact  cost  of  a  telegram  from 
one  office  to  any  other  telegraph  office  in  the  busi- 
ness world. 

The  Sub-marine  Cable. 

In  1795  a  Spaniard  named  Salva  discussed 
submarine  telegraphy  before  the  Barcelona  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  He  then  presented  a  plan  and 
recommended  submarine  connection  between  Bar- 
celona and  Majorca,  an  island  off  the  mainland. 
Dr.  O'Shaughnessy,  director  of  the  East  India 
Telegraph,  laid  insulated  wires  under  the  Hugli 
river  in  1839,  and  transmitted  telegraphic  sig- 
nals through  them.  The  practicability  of  sub- 
marine telegraphy  was  successfully  proven  by 
Professor  Morse  with  his  copper  wire  cable  from 
Castle  Garden  to  Governor's  Island,  New  York 
harbor,  in  1842.  The  next  year  he  suggested  that 
a  cable  be  laid  connecting  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  In  1845  Ezra  Cornell  laid  twelve  miles 
of  submarine  telegraph  from  New  York  city  to 
Fort  Lee.     Cotton  was  used  as  an  insulator,  and 


36 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY, 


the  whole  was  inclosed  in  a  lead  pipe.  The  cable 
was  destroyed  by  the  ice  a  few  months  after  it  was 
laid,  but  until  its  destruction  it  worked  perfectly. 
A  company  of  English  and  French  laid  a  cable 
across  the  English  channel  in  1851.  This  cable 
was  twenty-five  miles  long,  and  was  laid  in  water 
averaging  120  feet  deep.  Two  years  afterward, 
England,  Ireland,  Scotland  and  the  Continent  of 
Europe  were  connected  by  submarine  telegraph. 
There  were  six  cables  laid,  the  longest  one  being 
100  miles,  and  all  worked  successfully. 

The  first  attempt  to  lay  a  cable  across  the  At- 
lantic ocean  was  made  by  Cyrus  W.  Field,  in 
1857.  It  was  planned  to,  lay  the  cable  from  New- 
foundland to  Valentia,  Ireland,  a  distance  of  2500 
miles.  After  laying  some  250  miles  of  the  cable 
from  the  Valentia  end,  the  wires  broke,  and  the 
work  had  to  be  abandoned.  The  next  year  a  new 
cable  was  made,  and  successfully  laid.  It  is  re- 
ported that  one  message  sent  across  the  ocean  on 
this  cable  saved  the  business  world  $250,000. 
After  eighteen  days  the  cable  ceased  to  work. 

In  1865  Mr.  Field  made  another  attempt  to 
lay  the  cable.  The  largest  vessel  then  known,  the 
Great  Eastern,  was  used  in  laying  this  cable.  It 
started  from  "Valentia,  Ireland,  carrying  2500 
miles  of  cable.  When  a  thousand  miles  at  sea 
the  cable  parted,  in  water  fully  11,000  feet  deep. 
Although  nine  days  were  spent  in  searching  for 
the  lost  cable,  it  could  not  be  found.  Undaunted 
and  with  tireless  devotion  to  his  purpose,  Mr.  Field 
organized  a  new  company,  with  a  capital  of  $3,- 
000,000,  to  make  a  new  cable.  This  cable  consisted 
of  seven  copper  wires  surrounded  by  a  number  of 
coatings  of  gutta-percha  and  water-proof  coverings. 
These  were  protected  by  ten  Bessemer  steel  wires. 
Each  of  these  steel  wires  was  wound  with  pitch- 
soaked  hemp.  The  shore  ends  were  further  pro- 
tected by  thirty-six  iron  wires  wound  spirally 
around  the  cable,  and  covered  with  wrappings  of 
tarred  hemp.  After  the  new  cable  was  completed 
it  was  stored  in  the  Great  Eastern  and  taken  to 


Valentia.  The  steamer  began  paying  out  the  cable 
July  13,  1866,  and  successfully  completed  its  task 
at  Newfoundland  July  27th.  As  the  United 
States  was  connected  with  Newfoundland  by  cable, 
our  nation  at  once  entered  into  telegraphic  com- 
munication with  Europe,  which  proved  permanent. 
The  Great  Eastern  returned  to  search  for  the  parted 
cable  of  the  previous  year,  and  after  eighteen  days' 
search,  grappled  the  cable,  brought  it  on  board,  and 
when  it  was  found  to  be  in  good  working  condition 
the  broken  end  was  spliced,  and  on  September  8th 
the  Newfoundland  end  was  successfully  landed  at 
Trinity  Bay. 

The  rate  of  speed  over  these  cables  at  first  was 
an  average  of  eight  words  per  minute,  but  was  in- 
creased to  fifteen  words  per  minute. 

In  1869  the  French  laid  a  cable  from  Brest  to 
Nova  Scotia,  and  the  British  Indian  Submarine 
Telegraph  Company  completed  a  line  from  Suez 
to  Bombay. 

Although  it  is  less  than  a  half-century  since 
Cyrus  W.  Field  laid  the  first  ocean  cable,  the  wires 
have  crossed  every  ocean  save  the  Pacific.  The 
total  number  of  submarine  telegraphs  is  given  as 
1500.  The  aggregate  mileage  is  seven  times  the 
length  of  the  equator,  and  the  messages  number 
upward  of  six  million  annually. 

England  has  projected  a  cable  from  Victoria, 
British  Columbia,  to  Sidney,  Australia ;  while  the 
United  States  contemplates  the  laying  of  a  cable 
from  San  Francisco  to  Manila,  via  Honolulu, 
Wake  Island,  and  Guam.  These  projected  cables 
will  be  the  longest  single  cables  yet  made. 

In  June,  1897,  occurred  Queen  Victoria's  Jubi- 
lee Celebration,  marking  the  Queen's  sixty  years' 
prosperous  reign.  One  feature  of  the  jubilee  was  a 
great  procession,  in  which  every  province  of  the  em- 
pire was  represented.  Before  leaving  the  palace. 
Queen  Victoria  sent  this  message  to  every  British 
colony :  "  From  my  heart  I  thank  my  beloved 
people.  May  God  bless  them. — Victoria  R.  I." 
Before  the   Queen's  carriage  in  that  procession 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


37 


reached  London  Bridge,  a  reply  to  this  telegram 
had  been  received  from  Canada,  Australia,  Cape 
Colony,  India,  and  more  than  thirty  other  points. 

This  shows  the  speed  with  which  news  can  be 
carried  by  the  telegraph.  It  enables  the  press  to 
gather  up  the  happenings  of  the  day  from  all  parts 
of  the  earth  and  present  them  at  our  breakfast- 
tables  the  next  morning. 

When  President  McKinley  was  shot  in  Buffalo, 
September  6,  1901,  the  shot  w^as  known  around  the 
slobe  before  the  swiftest  train  out  of  Buffalo 
reached  ^ew  York  city.  The  most  impressive 
silent  testimony  to  the  greatness  and  goodness  of 
a  man  was  given  on  the  day  the  late  President 
William  McKinley's  body  was  placed  in  the  tomb, 
September  14,  1901.  At  the  hour  of  the  funeral 
services  at  Canton,  Ohio,  all  business  of  the  United 
States  by  cable,  telegraph,  railroad  and  steamer 
lines  ceased.  Across  the  prairies,  in  the  moun- 
tains, on  the  plains,  were  thousands  of  motionless 
trains,  the  vessels  of  our  rivers  and  coasts  moved 
not  a  wheel,  while  operators  checked  the  hitherto 
ceaseless  throb  of  the  electric  telegraph  as  the  busi- 
ness world  gave  its  five-minute  tribute  to  the  mar- 
tyred President. 

Every  city  of  commercial  importance  has  its 
money-order  telegraph  office,  through  which,  in  a 
few  hours,  an  order  for  money  can  be  wired  to  any 
other  commercial  city  in  the  business  world.  Thus 
a  traveler  having  money  on  deposit  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, who  is  now  traveling  in  Russia,  can  "  wire  " 
his  banker  for  $300,  and  the  banker  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, through  the  telegraph,  sends  the  Russian 
office  an  order  for  the  money,  so  the  traveler  may 
have  it  to  use  the  same  day  he  calls  for  it.  The 
sum  advanced  by  the  Russian  telegraph  office  is 
sent  from  the  San  Francisco  office  by  earliest 
steamer.  The  reasonable  fee  charged  for  this  ac- 
commodation has  made  the  telegraph  a  great  me- 
dium of  exchange  in  the  financial  world. 

The  completion  of  the  projected  American  cable 
across  the  Pacific  will  be  of  great  service  to  our 


nation,  shortening  the  distance  a  telegram  must 
travel  from  Washington  to  Manila  by  many  thou- 
sand miles.  The  route  of  a  telegram  from  Wash- 
ington to  Manila  by  the  two  routes  is  here  given: 
Washington  to  New  York,  by  land ;  New  York  to 
Valentia,  by  cable;  Valentia  to  Brighton,  Eng- 
land, cable  and  land ;  Brighton  to  Havre,  by  cable ; 
Havre  to  Marseilles,  by  land ;  Marseilles  to  Alex- 
andria, by  cable ;  Alexandria  to  Suez,  by  land ; 
Suez  to  Aden,  by  cable ;  Aden  to  Bombay,  by  cable ; 
Bombay  to  Madris,  by  land ;  Madris  to  Singapore, 
by  cable;  Singapore  to  Saigon,  by  cable;  Saigon 
to  Hong  Kong,  by  cable;  Hong  Kong  to  Bolinao 
(P.  I.),  by  cable;  Bolinao  to  Manila,  by  land. 
The  total  distance  being  14,000  miles. 

Second  route :  Washington  to  San  Francisco,  by 
land ;  San  Francisco  to  Honolulu,  by  cable ;  Hon- 
olulu to  Wake  Island,  by  cable;  Wake  Island  to 
Guam,  by  cable ;  Guam^  to  Manila,  by  cable  and 
land.     The  total  distance  is  9980  miles. 

With  a  shortened  water  route  from  our  eastern 
shores  and  European  ports  to  West  Asiatic  and 
Australian  ports  and  commercial  cities  united  by 
cable  across  the  Pacific,  the  number  and  capacity 
of  Pacific  steamers  will  be .  multiplied  and  its 
.commerce  will  soon  rival  Atlantic  commerce. 

From  a  speed  of  three  to  eight  words  per  minute 
the  cable  has  been  improved  so  that  to-day  the 
business  man  in  America  sends  his  message  to  the 
business  man  in  Europe  at  an  average  speed  of 
fifty  words  per  minute.  The  rate  has  been  so  re- 
duced that  the  New  York  merchant  can  talk  to  his 
London  agent  at  25  cents  per  word  and  instruct 
his  Manila  representative  at  $2.50  per  word. 

While  A.  T.  Stewart  waited  six  months  for  an 
answer  to  his  business  correspondence  in  East- 
Indian  island  commerce  fifty  years  ago,  John  Wan- 
amaker,  in  the  same  New  York  house,  can  to-day 
transact  business  with  Bombay,  Calcutta  and  Sing- 
apore by  telegraph  within  six  hours. 

We  can  see,  then,  that  the  electric  telegraph, 
land  and  submarine,  is  an  indispensable  agent  of 


38 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


"Carpet-Bag  Express." 

news  and  commerce  to-daj.  Every  hour  its  wires 
flash  dispatches  over  the  mountains  and  under  the 
seas  that  give  the  press  its  international  news,  the 
business  man  the  world's  markets,  and  make  all 
people  of  the  earth  neighbors  to  one  another. 

3.   The  Telephone. 

The  most  interesting  exhibit  at  the  Centennial 
Exhibition  was  the  telephone.  This  apparatus  was 
the  invention  of  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  son  of  a 
distinguished  educator  of  Scotland  (Professor  A. 
M.  Bell).  Mr.  Bell's  father  was  the  author  of  a 
system  of  instruction  called  "  Bell's  visible  speech." 
This  system  proved  helpful  in  teaching  deaf-mutes 
to  speak  as  well  as  in  overcoming  impediments  in 
speech.     Alexander  had  thoroughly  mastered  his 


father's  system,  and  when  he  was  called  to 
the  chair  of  vocal  physiology  in  Boston  Uni- 
versity in  1871  he  began  experimenting  with 
an  apparatus  to  aid  conversation  by  means  of 
an  electric  wire  attached  to  a  diaphragm  at 
either  end.  In  1875  he  perfected  an  instru- 
ment that  successfully  stood  his  tests  and 
carried  on  conversations  at  Salem  as  well  as 
at  Boston. 

To-day  the  telephone  is  an  indispensable 
factor  in  the  business  world.  A  merchant  in 
Chicago  desires  a  conference  with  a  dealer  in 
St.  Louis.  Formerly  he  would  be  at  the  ex- 
pense of  traveling  to  St.  Louis,  where  now  he 
is  saved  both  time  and  expense  and  given  a 
conference  with  the  St.  Louis  dealer  by  tele- 
phone. 

The  telephone  business  of  the  United  States 
alone  requires  over  600,000  miles  of  tele- 
phone lines,  which  is  constantly  being  in- 
creased. The  original  plan  has  been  im- 
proved upon,  until  now  one  can  talk  to  a 
friend  1500  miles  away. 

The  telephone  brings  buyer  and  seller  "  ear 
to  ear  "  if  not  "  face  to  face." 


4.    The  Express. 

Mr.  W.  F.  Harnden,  in  February,  1839,  planned 
to  make  a  business  trip  from  Boston  to  New  York. 
A  book-dealer  and  some  Boston  merchants  desired 
him  to  transact  some  business  for  them,  and  so, 
when  he  left  Boston,  March  4th,  Mr.  Harnden 
took  their  orders  and  bundles  in  his  carpet-bag  (the 
"grip"  of  those  days)  with  his  own  bundles. 
He  journeyed  via  the  Boston  &  Providence 
Railroad  and  Long  Island  Sound  steamer  to 
Xew  York.  His  safe  delivery  of  the  parcels 
and  transaction  of  the  New  York  business  for 
his  neighbors  gave  such  satisfaction  in  Boston 
that  Mr.  Harnden  resolved  to  similarly  make  four 
trips  per  week  for  his  Boston  friends  from  Boston 
to  New  York,  charging  a  nominal  sum  for  his 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


39 


carpet-bag  delivery  and  transaction  of  business 
in  the  nation's  metropolis.  He  entered  into  con- 
tract with  the  railroad  and  steamer  line  that  took 
him  on  his  first  trip,  agreeing,  for  transportation 
of  himself  and  his  "Carpet-Bag  Express,"  to  share 
with  them  the  profits  of  the  business. 

Thus  originated  the  Express  system  of  this 
country,  now  so  indispensable  to  both  buyers  and 
sellers.  While  European  countries  have  a  "  parcels 
post"  system,  similar  to  the  baggage  system  of 
our  railways,  it  is  not  the  aid  to  commerce  that 
the  express  system  has  proven  to  be.  This  sys- 
tem was  Yankee  in  origin,  and  was  established 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  insuring  safe  and  prompt 
delivery  of  parcels  or  merchandise  of  any  kind. 
Mr.  Harnden's  carpet-bag,  in  which  the  express 
business  was  bom,  is  preserved  in  the  Boston  office 
of  the  Adams  Express  Company,  as  an  historic 
souvenir. 

The  first  express  west  of  Buffalo  was  established 
by  Henry  Wells,  in  1845.  In  1849  a  California 
express  line  was  established  by  Adams  &  Com- 
pany. Wells,  Eargo  &  Company  was  established 
in  1852.  Its  lines  of  express  now  reach  all  the 
principal  cities  of  the  United  States,  Mexico,  Can- 
ada, and  British  Columbia,  and  forward  express  to 
"•  London,  Paris,  Hamburg,  and  all  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, South  America,  China,  Australia,  and 
Japan."  It  now  carries  any  valuable  or  mer- 
chandise, from  a  diamond  ring  to  an  elephant. 
Its  42,670  miles  of  service  is  divided  as  follows: 

35,791  miles  of  railway  routes. 

4763  miles  of  ocean  steamer  routes.. 

1305  miles  of  stage  routes. 

811  miles  of  inland  steamer  routes. 
Every  night  it  sends  a  solid  express  train  out  of 
Jersey  City  via  the  Erie  Route  of  eight  to  ten 
express  cars.  At  Chicago  the  cars  of  express  for 
the  Pacific  coast  are  transferred  to  the  Santa  Fe 
Route,  and  run  into  San  Francisco  four  and  one- 
half  days  from  time  of  starting.  Saturday  night 
after  business  hours  a  San  Francisco  merchant 


can,  by  telegraph,  purchase  a  bill  of  merchandise 
in  New  York  city,  and  relj  upon  the  express 
getting  the  merchandise  to  him  in  time  for  the 
next  Saturday's  trade. 

The  express  company  just  described  illustrates 
the  work  of  the  system  so  efficiently  performed  by 
fully  a  score  of  leading  lines  that  have  grown 
into  a  national  business  within  the  last  fifty  years. 
Every  line  of  railroad  and  every  steamer  route  has 
an  operating  express  company,  whose  business  is 
entirely  separate  from  the  traffic  of  the  transporta- 
tion line.  The  express  company  of  to-day  enters 
into  cor^tract  with  the  transportation  line  and  pays 
a  definite  per  cent,  of  its  business  over  the  route 
for  the  exclusive  privilege  of  doing  that  business. 
It  has  a  place  of  business  on  every  passenger  train 
or  boat  on  the  line.  Although  express  and  bag- 
gage may  be  carried  in  the  same  car,  the  express 
messenger  cannot  take  baggage,  and  the  baggage- 
master  will  not  take  unchecked  baggage,  which 
must  be  sent  by  express  or  consigned  to  the  freight 
department  of  the  transportation  line. 

Most  of  the  transcontinental  express  lines  have 
adopted  an  interchangeable  money-order  system. 
For  the  same  rate  charged  for  a  postal  money 
order,  an  express  money  order  can  be  obtained. 
The  postal  order  is  payable  at  one  specified  post- 
office,  but  the  express  order  is  payable  at  any  ex- 
press office.  This  enables  a  number  of  business 
men  to  use  the  same  order  with  the  cost  of  one  ex- 
change, since  it  is  both  negotiable  and  payable  at 
almost  any  express  office  in  the  nation. 

The  express  has  been  a  useful  factor  in  in- 
creasing the  vegetable  and  fruit  business  of  the 
country.  As  early  vegetables  and  fruit  for  market 
are  sent  largely  by  express,  the  express  companies 
have  almost  universally  adopted  the  "  consignment 
plan."  Any  producer  along  the  line  who  has  fruit 
or  vegetables  and  fails  himself  to  find  a  buyer, 
can  consign  the  merchandise  to  the  express  agent 
at  any  point  on  the  line. 

This  agent  will  place  the  fruit  or  vegetables 


40 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


sent  liim  upon  the  market  as  soon  as  received, 
collect  from  sales,  and  send  the  cash  returns  to 
the  producer.  The  express  companies  now  sell 
millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  perishable  merchan- 
dise annually  for  their  customers  by  the  "  con- 
signment" plan. 

Another  accommodating  feature  of  the  express 
business  is  the  "  collecting  system."  If  a  person 
desires  rent,  an  overdue  bill  or  note,  or  any  money 
obligation,  settled  in  any  town  containing  an  ex- 
press office,  he -can  collect  it  through  the  express 
agent.  The  person  desiring  the  collection  gives 
the  express  agent  in  his  city  an  order  for  the  col- 
lection. This  order  is  telegraphed  to  the  city 
named  in  the  order.  The  express  office  at  that 
point  sends  its  agent  to  make  a  personal  demand 
for  the  money,  showing  the  telegraphed  instruc- 
tions for  the  same.  If  the  money  is  collected  it 
is  sent  by  earliest  express,  and  the  party  ordering 
the  collection  pays  expressage  on  the  money  and  a 
per  cent,  for  collection.  If  payment  is  refused, 
the  party  ordering  the  collection  is  notified  by  the 
express  agent  in  his  city,  and  is  simply  asked  to 
pay  the  cost  of  the  telegrams. 

A  large  business  for  the  express  has  grown  up 
under  the  "Collection  on  Delivery"  (C.  O.  D.) 
plan.  A  shipper  selling  goods  to  a  stranger,  or 
buyers  desiring  to  examine  goods  sent  on  approval, 
use  the  C.  O.  D.  system  of  express.  The  shipper 
marks  the  amount  to  be  collected,  and  while  the 
buyer  has  the  right  to  examine  the  merchandise, 
the  amount  named  by  the  shipper  must  be  paid  be- 
fore the  goods  can  be  taken.  The  express  company 
expresses  the  collections  to  the  shipper.  The  ex- 
press messenger  supplements  telephone,  telegraph 
and  transportation  line,  rendering  the  service  of 
each  more  effective  in  the  world  of  commerce, 
while  he  with  "  speed,  security,  and  economy," 
like  Mr.  Ilarnden,  does  business  for  his  neighbors. 
His  business  during  the  last  five  years  in  the 
United  States  alone  has  given  him  three-quarters 
of  a  billion-dollar  bank  check  each  year. 


The  following  express  companies  are  listed  in 
the  official  Railway  Guide  of  the  United  States, 
Canada,  Mexico,  and  Cuba: 

Name,  Commercial  Abbreviation. 

Adams  Ad. 

American Am. 

Canadian Can. 

Denver  &  Rio  Grande D.  &  R.  G. 

Dominion Dom. 

Great  Northern G.  N. 

Hidalgo Hid. 

Inter-Oceanic Int. 

Long  Island L.  I. 

Maritime Mar. 

Merchants Mer. 

Mexican  National Mex.  Nat. 

National Nat. 

New  York  and  Boston  Dispatch N.  Y.  &  B.  D. 

Northern  Pacific N.  P. 

Pacific  Pac. 

Southern Sth. 

United  States U.S. 

Wells,  Fargo  &  Company W.  F. 

West  Jersey W.J. 

Western West. 

More  than  200  short-line  or  "  local "  companies 
share  with  the  above-named  companies  the  great 
express  business  of  our  domestic  commerce. 

QUESTION    SUMMARY. 

1.  Where  did  the  postal  system  originate  ?  How  many 
centuries  ago  ? 

2.  Explain  the  origin  of  the  American  colonial  post 
system, 

3.  When  was  the  New  York  and  Boston  post  estab- 
lished ? 

4.  How  often  was  mail  carried  on  this  route? 

5.  What  can  you  say  of  mail  transmission  between  Bos- 
ton and  New  York  to-day  ? 

6.  Who  established  regular  post-roads  and  made  uni- 
form postal  rates  in  the  colonies  ? 

7.  What  means  did  he  adopt  to  quicken  ocean  mails  ? 

8.  What  determined  the  cost  of  mail  transmission  then  ? 

9.  Upon  what  does  it  now  depend  ? 

10.  Describe  the  "  Pony  Express." 

11.  How  did  the  stage-coach  become  a  factor  in  mail 
transmission  ? 

12.  Explain  the  free-delivery  system. 

13.  When  was  this  system  established  ? 

14.  How  many  persons  are  now  employed  in  the  free- 
delivery  division  of  the  Postoffice  Department  of  our  na- 
tion? 

15.  Explain  the  postoffice  money-order  system. 

16.  What  shows  the  value  of  this  service  ? 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


41 


17.  What  is  a  clearing-house?  ^ns.,  A  clearing-house 
is  a  bank  of  banks.  A  place  where  representatives  of  all 
th^banks  of  a  commercial  center  meet  daily  and  "clear" 
th^r  bank's  account  with  every  other  bank  in  the  asso- 
ciation or  clearing-house. 

18.  When  was  the  Postal  Union  established,  and  what 
are  its  advantages  to  commerce  ? 

19.  How  does  our  Superintendent  of  Foreign  Mails 
quicken  foreign  mail  transmission  ? 

20.  Explain  the  work  of  the  "Dead  Letter"  Office. 

21.  Describe  the  work  of  the  Auditing  Department  of 
the  postoffice. 

22.  Why  is  the  Postal  Department  considered  an  im- 
portant factor  of  commerce  ? 

23.  Compare  our  postal  service  with  England,  France, 
and  Grermany. 

24.  Who  was  Prof.  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  and  what  did  he  do 
for  commerce  ? 

25.  Why  did  he  not  bring  out  his  invention  before  1844? 

26.  What  was  the  first  message  ?    By  whom  dictated  ? 

27.  Between  what  two  cities  was  the  first  telegraph  line 
established  ? 

28.  When  was  the  telegraph  introduced  into  Europe? 

29.  Name  the  continents  in  the  order  of  their  telegraph 
lines.  Jn«.,  North  America,  Europe,  Asia,  South  America, 
Africa,  Australia. 

30.  When  was  a  bureau  of  the  world's  telegraphs  estab- 
lished? 

31.  Where  are  the  headquarters  of  this  bureau? 

32.  Why  located  there?  Ans.,  Nearest  the  center  of 
commerce. 

33.  Discuss  the  work  of  this  bureau. 

34.  Who  first  discussed  submarine  telegraphy?  When 
and  where  ? 

35.  Who  proved  the  practicability  of  submarine  teleg- 
raphy ?    How  ? 

36.  Discuss  the  work  of  Ezra  Cornell. 

37.  What  cables  were  laid  in  1851  and  1853? 

38.  Who  attempted  to  lay  an  ocean  cable  in  1857? 

39.  Why  did  he  not  succeed  ? 

40.  Between  what  points  did  Mr.  Field  seek  to  lay  the 
cable  ? 

41.  What  was  the  result  of  his  second  attempt  ? 

42.  Describe  Mr.  Field's  third  attempt  to  lay  a  cable. 

43.  When  was  permanent  telegraphic  communication 
established  between  Europe  and  America? 

44.  Describe  the  construction  of  this  cable  of  1866. 

45.  What  was  the  rate  of  speed  over  the  cable  when  first 
laid  ?    What  is  the  present  rate  of  speed  ? 


46.  What  incident  shows  the  rapidity  of  telegraphic 
news? 

47.  When  and  to  whom  did  the  telegraph,  steamboat 
and  railway  service  give  a  five-minute  tribute?  Describe 
the  incident. 

48.  Explain  the  system  of  sending  money  by  telegraph. 

49.  Trace  a  cablegram  from  Washington  to  Manila  by 
the  present  route.    What  is  the  total  distance? 

50.  Trace  a  .telegram  from  Washington  to  Manila  by 
the  projected  route.     What  is  the  total  distance? 

51.  Show  by  illustration  the  value  of  the  telegraph  to  a 
United  States  merchant  doing  foreign  business. 

52.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  telephone  ? 

53.  Where  and  when  was  the  first  telephone  line  ? 

54.  Illustrate  the  value  of  the  telephone  to  the  business 
man. 

55.  Describe  the  "Carpet-Bag  Express." 

56.  When  was  the  first  express  line  across  the  American 
continent  established  ? 

57.  How  was  express  transported  on  this  line  at  first? 
Ans.,  By  rail  to  the  Mississippi  river  and  by  pony  express 
and  the  stage-coach  from  there  to  the  Pacific  coast. 

58.  What  is  meant  by  an  express  train?    Illustrate. 

59.  Explain  the  interchangeable  express  money-order 
system. 

60.  What  is  the  "consignment"  plan  of  the  express 
system  ? 

61.  Illustrate  the  "  collecting  "  system  of  the  express  ; 
established  for  what  purpose  ? 

62.  What  is  meant  by  C.  O.  D.? 

63.  What  articles  can  be  sent  by  telegraph  ? 

64.  Why  is  the  express  described  as  "  Yankee"  in  both 
origin  and  growth  ? 

65.  What  do  you  say  is  the  value  of  the  express  to  com- 
merce? 

66.  Name  ten  important  express  companies.  Locate 
line  of  operation. 

67.  Enumerate  the  aids  to  commerce,  given  in  this 
chapter,  as  you  think  they  rank  in  value.  Give  reasons 
for  your  answer. 

68.  What  express  company  commemorated  its  fiftieth 
anniversary  by  giving  every  person  in  its  employ  a  silver 
medal,  February,  1902?    Ans.,  Wells,  Fargo  &  Co. 

69.  What  foreign  cities  are  connected  with  our  nation's 
express  business?  Ans.,  Those  ports  having  steamer 
connection  with  our  nation's  commercial  cities. 

70.  What  is  the  approximate  amount  of  our  nation's 
express  business  per  annum? 


42 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTEK  VI. 
Building   a   Modern    Steamer. 

The  preceding  chapters  have  told  us  how  steam 
has  facilitated  rapid  transit  on  land,  and  we  now 
will  learn  how  it  has  also  made  it  possible  for 
stately  palaces  to  cross  limitless  wastes  of  water 
with  speed  and  ease  that  seem  almost  incredible. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  de- 
mand for  quicker  water  travel  began  to  be  ex- 
pressed, and  when  James  Watt  proved  that  steam 
could  be  used  as  a  motive  power,  a  number  of 
men  began  to  experiment  with  steam  as  a  means 
of  propelling  boats.  Samuel  Morey  built  a  steam- 
boat on  the  Connecticut  river;  James  Runisey 
built  one  for  the  Potomac;  John  Fitch,  one  for 
the  Delaware;  William  Longstreet,  one  for  tlie 
Savannah  river;  John  Stevens,  one  for  the  Hud- 
son; and  Oliver  Evans  experimented  at  Phila- 
delphia. One  tried  to  make  a  steam  engine  ply 
the  oars;  another  pumped  water  in  at  the  bow 
and  out  at  the  stern,  with  steam  power;  another 
had  a  wheel  at  the  stern;  and  still  another  had  a 
wheel  on  each  side.  Each  one  worked  independ- 
ently of  the  other,  and  succeeded  in  running  his 
boat  against  the  current  of  the  river ;  and  so  each 
one  claimed  to  have  invented  a  steamboat.  These 
men  were  without  money ;  wealthy  men  could  not 
be  interested  in  such  follies,  and  the  public  cared 
nothing  for  such  "  silly  inventions."  These  were 
all  made  and  forgotten  before  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury was  ushered  in. 

Just  as  James  Watt  was  beginning  his  study  of 
the  steam  engine,  a  Yankee  boy  was  born  in  the 
town  of  Little  Britain,  Pennsylvania,  who,  later, 
revolutionized  the  river,  lake,  and  ocean  carrying 
trade,  increasing  cargo  and  lessening  time  of 
transportation.  He  painted  portraits  and  land- 
scapes with  ease  and  rare  skill,  and  at  twenty-two 
West  took  him  to  London.  Here  he  heard  of 
Watt's  work,  and  turned  his  attention  wholly  to 
mechanics.     He  found  patrons  in  the  Duke  of 


Bridgewater  and  Earl  of  Stanhope,  and  was  en- 
couraged to  perfect  several  useful  inventions.  In 
1795  he  was  a  civil  engineer.  In  1796  he  vis- 
ited Paris  on  invitation  of  the  United  States 
minister.  Here,  in  1803,  he  perfected  and  suc- 
cessfully launched  a  small  steamboat  on  the  Seine, 
I^ot  satisfied  with  the  way  the  French  received  the 
steamboat,  Kobert  Fulton  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  1806,  and  perfected  and  launched  on  the 
Hudson  his  "  Clermont."  This  boat  was  a  side- 
paddle  steamboat,  130  feet  long,  with  wheels  15 
feet  in  diameter  and  4  feet  wide.  The  trial  trip 
was  made  August  7th,  1807,  from  New  York  to 
Albany.  The  sailing  vessels  made  the  trip  in 
four  days,  a  distance  of  150  miles.  Fulton  made 
the  trip  with  the  Clermont  in  32  hours.  Thus 
Fulton,  while  not  the  first  to  apply  steam  to  navi- 
gation, was  the  first  to  make  a  successful  and  prac- 
tical demonstration  of  the  problem,  and  this  first 
long  steamboat  trip  turned  indifference  to  enthu- 
siasm and  capital  was  invested  in  steamboats. 
Thus  a  new  and  permanent  element  of  water 
transportation  sprang  into  being. 

A  river  steamer  was  launched  at  Pittsburg  in 
1811,  and  sent  down  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
rivers  to  New  Orleans.  A  lake  steamer  to  run 
from  Buffalo  to  Detroit  was  launched  in  1814. 

The  first  steamer  to  cross  the  ocean  was  the  Sa- 
vannah, in  1819.  This  steamer  crossed  the  ocean 
in  twenty-five  days,  using  pitch-pine  for  fuel.  Al- 
though it  advertised  for  passengers,  no  one  ap- 
plied for  transportation. 

Finally,  anthracite  coal  was  found,  improve- 
ments in  machinery  were  made,  space  for  freight 
was  increased,  and  the  time  of  crossing  the  At- 
lantic lessened.  In  1840  a  comjjany  was  organ- 
ized to  furnish  a  freight  and  passenger  line  of 
steamers  between  America  and  Europe.  This  was 
the  Cunard  line,  the  pioneer  steamer  line  of  the 
ocean.  Thus  dawned  the  day  of  steam  navigation, 
when  Neptune  is  overcome,  Eolus  is  baffled,  and 


'COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


43 


The  Steamship  "Savannah," 


the  deep  made  the  pathway  and  medium  of  tran- 
sit for  a  mighty  and  ever-increasing  commerce. 

The  description^  of  an  ocean  steamer  may  prove 
helpful  here,  as  the  vast  majority  of  the  American 
school  children  live  inland.  We  will  describe  one 
of  the  American  liners,  which  was  christened 
"  St.  Louis,"  by  Mrs.  Cleveland,  as  it  glided  down 
the  soaped  ways  in  William  Cramps's  shipyard,  in 
1894. 

This  vessel  was  used  by  our  Government  as  an 
auxiliary  cruiser  in  the  war  with  Spain,  1898, 
and  therefore  its  description  will  be  of  special 
interest.  When  a  ship  is  to  be  constructed,  very 
careful  construction  drawings  are  made,  showing 
ground  plan,  elevation,  and  lateral  view  of  same  — 


three  carefully  prepared  drawings  —  indicating 
dimensions  of  every  piece  to  be  used  in  construc- 
tion. This  set  of  construction  drawings,  if  a])- 
proved,  is  now  taken  to  the  mold-loft  of  the 
shipyard,  and  on  an  immense  floor-blackboard  is 
drawn,  at  full  size,  every  plate,  rib  and  girder  just 
as  it  is  to  be,  and  its  relative  position  accurately 
shown.  This  must  be  carefully  checked  up  and 
verified,  which  process  is  called  "  fairing  the  ship." 
The  next  step  is  to  make  the  "  scrive-board,"  a 
carefully  prepared,  full-sized  chart  of  the  ship, 
stamped  or  grooved  into  the  wood,  forming  the 
pattern  for  every  one  of  the  infinite  number  of 
pieces  used  in  the  building  of  the  ship.  With  the 
scrive-board  before  them,  the  ship's  mechanics  can 


44 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Launching  of  the  Steamship  "St.  Louis." 


now  begin  the  construction  work.  First,  long 
pliable  bars  of  steel  issue  at  white  heat  from  fur- 
naces. The  mechanics  with  pincers  and  tongs 
seize  these  bars,  and,  guided  by  the  lines  on  the 
scrive-board,  fashion  the  ribs.  To  get  the  proper 
curve,  the  skilled  mechanics  do  their  work  on  a 
great  metal  floor,  with  countless  thousands  of  per- 
forations. Pegs,  or,  as  the  seamen  call  them, 
"  dogs,"  are  inserted  in  these  holes,  and  assist  in 
bending  the  bars  so  that,  by  proper  hammering, 
the  exact  shape  may  be  obtained.  Thus  with  great 
care  and  labor  the  infinite  number  of  ribs,  rib- 
bands and  cross-plates,  after  months  of  continuous 
work,  are  fashioned  into  the  ship's  skeleton.  Then 
this  skeleton  is  covered  with  the  steel  plates,  cut, 
curved,  smoothed,  grooved  and  trimmed  to  such  a 
nicety  that  they  can  be  fitted  with  exactness. 
When  riveted  in  place,  decks  and  bulkheads  are 


built,  and  the  vessel  is  ready  for  its  third  epoch  — 
launching. 

Six  thousand  tons  of  the  best  American  steel  was 
utilized  in  fashioning  the  great  hull  of  the  St. 
Louis.  The  launching  you  have  all  read  about, 
and  fully  understand  with  what  pride  the  ship- 
builder rides  down  the  soaped  ways  and  sees  his 
creation  take  its  first  great  plunge,  to  float  off 
triumphantly. 

But  our  ship  is  not  complete.  Over  400  work- 
men—  painters,  plumbers,  cabinetmakers,  uphol- 
sterers, electricians,  and  decorators  —  work  ener- 
getically for  nearly  a  year  after  the  launching. 
Boiler-  and  engine-makers  are  also  at  work,  and 
when  all  is  ready  the  ship's  engines  and  boilers  are 
lifted  into  the  hull  and  put  in  place.  This  ship, 
the  St.  Louis,  is  given  ten  boilers,  with  more  than 
thirteen  miles  of  tubing,  and  two  mighty  engines, 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


46 


each  working  six  cylinders  at  a  pressure  of  200 
pounds  per  square  inch,  giving  an  energy  equiva- 
lent to  the  strength  of  20,000  horses  or  117,000 
Goliaths.  Besides  these  giants,  fifty  or  more  lesser 
engines  are  used  for  ventilating,  refrigerating, 
hoisting,  lighting,  pumping,  and  other  purposes 
that  assist  in  operating  the  vessel. 

To  the  rear  of  the  engines  are  placed  immense 
steel  trusses,  fixed  iu  a  solid  structure  of  cast  steel 
weighing  twenty-six  tons.  These  support  the  great 
twin  screws  thi.l:  are  to  propel  the  vessel. 

Xow  let  us  stand  on  the  upper  deck  and  see  if 
we  can  comprehend  the  magnitude  of  the  steamer. 
The  finest  cathedral  in  England  is  St.  Paul's,  Lon- 
don, and  it  is  no  doubt  the  largest  one  in  the  king- 
dom. If  our  vessel  be  placed  in  a  vertical  position 
upon  its  stern,  and  we  remain  r.t  the  bow,  we  shall 
he  189  feet  above  the  cathedral's  great  dome.  If 
placed  by  Victoria  Tower,  House  of  Parliament, 


the  bow  would  be  214  feet  higher  in  the  air  than 
the  tower's  topmost  point.  Placed  by  the  side  of 
our  own  Washington's  monument,  we  could  place 
our  hands  on  top  of  the  aluminum  cap,  as  the  bow 
would  lack  but  one  foot  of  being  as  high  as  the 
top  of  this,  the  highest  monument  on  the  Ameri- 
can continent. 

Now  let  us  resume  the  horizontal  plane  again, 
as  these  extreme  heights  make  one  dizzy,  unless  he 
is  a  sailor  or  a  skyscraper-builder.  We  will  go  to 
St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New  York,  the  largest 
cathedral  in  our  nation,  the  pride  of  all  Ameri- 
cans who  appreciate  architectural  beauty  and  ad- 
mire noble  projDortions,  and  we  find  that  although 
this  cathedral  would  reach  almost  entirely  across 
a  city  block  or  square,  yet  the  St.  Louis  would  ex- 
tend 248  feet,  beyond  thir,  length. 

We  look  do^^'Tl  from  the  deck  on  which  we  stand, 
and  we  see  that  the  water  is  forty  feet  below  us. 


46 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


First-Cabin  Dining-Room,  Steamship  "St.  Louis." 


The  vessel  has  five  decks ;  that  is,  it  is  five  stories 
high,  making  it  much  higher  than  most  school- 
houses  in  our  nation.  As  we  walk  down  the 
promenade  deck  we  pass  by  the  enormous  smoke- 
stacks, each  as  large  as  a  railway  tunnel.  Going 
to  the  stern  we  see  the  rudder,  the  area  of  one  side 
of  which  is  more  than  250  square  feet.  With  such 
a  helm  worked  by  steam,  a  comparatively  quick 
turn  is  easily  accomplished. 

On  the  hurricane  deck  a  powerful  search-light  is 
placed ;  and  in  and  out  over  the  vessel  are  placed 
more  incandescent  lights  than  are  used  in  a  well- 
lighted  city  of  8000  people. 

But  we  have  not  time  to  go  over  the  steamer  in 
detail,  although  as  we  pass  by  the  first-cabin 
library,  with  its  luxurious  furnishings,  easy-chairs, 
and  handsome  l>ook-cases  containing  1000  volumes 
of  the  world's  best  literature,  we  pause  to  admire 
its  equipment. 


We  now  pass  through  the  grand  dining-room  or 
saloon,  the  pride  of  the  ship,  and  the  product  of 
America's  best  decorative  art,  furnished  in  white 
mahogany  with  decorative  panelings  of  various  de- 
signs in  bas-relief.  We  observe  the  pipe-organ  in 
the  farther  end  of  the  saloon,  equal  in  tone  and 
finish  to  a  metropolitan  church-organ.  This  is 
usually  operated  by  some  member  of  the  ship's 
crew,  and  is  a  pleasant  feature  in  the  day's  program 
and  the  Sabbath  services.  The  saloon  is  so  ample 
that  350  guests  may  eat  at  once.  The  second  cabin, 
on  next  deck  below,  has  a  saloon  almost  as  nice,  and 
very  comfortably  furnished. 

As  we  turn  to  leave  the  first-cabin  deck,  we  see 
the  grand  stairway,  and  descending  by  it,  we  con- 
sider it  the  climax  of  architectural  beauty  and 
design. 

We  now  descend  to  the  hold,  where  the  bulk  of 
the  ship's  cargo  is  stored.     The  St.  Louis  has  a 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


47 


Grand  Staircase,  Steamship  "St,  Louis." 


gross  tonnage  of  5900  tons.  This  means  that  the 
steamer  can  carry  5900  tons  cargo.  To  give  yon 
a  conception  of  tlie  capacity  of  the  hold,  I  will 
say  that  if  the  freight  drawn  by  a  freight  train 
described  in  a  preceding  chapter  were  placed  in 
the  hold,  we  wonld  have  only  just  begun  to  load 
the  steamer. 

I  must  here  speak  of  the  professional  dock-men, 
stevedores  as  they  are  called,  who  load  and  nnload 
the  cargo.  The  St.  Louis  may  come  into  port  at 
noon  to-day ;  her  immense  cargo  will  be  unloaded, 
her  coal-bunkers  filled  (2500  to  3000  tons  of  coal), 
and  her  new  cargo  will  bo  stored  away  ready  for 
lior  outward  trip  by  noon  to-morrow. 

We  now  walk  the  gang-plank  to  the  dock,  and  as 
we  gaze  with  pride  and  pleasure  upon  this  beauti- 
ful evolution  that  Yankee  ingenuity  has  evolved 
from  "  Fulton's  folly,"  we  realize  the  possibilities 


of  American  genius  and  can  gain  a  conception  of 
the  great  problems  of  transit  and  transportation 
that  the  nineteenth  century  genius  has  solved,  and 
the  mighty  forces  that  the  new  century's  genius 
seeks  to  control  and  compel  to  do  man's  bidding, 
doubling  his  commerce  and  trebling  his  profit. 

aUESTION     SUMMARY. 

1.  Who  invented  the  steam  engine  ? 

2.  What  men  sought  to  propel  boats  by   steam,  and 
with  what  success  ? 

3.  What  circumstances  aided  Fulton  ? 

4.  Describe  his  experiment  with  the  Glermont  on  tlie 
Hudson  river  in  1807. 

5.  When  did   a  steamer  first  pass  from  Pittsburg  to 
New  Orleans  ? 

6.  When  did   the  first  steamer  cross  the  lakes  from 
Buffalo  to  Detroit? 

7.  What  can  you  say    of  the  Savannah  and  its  first 
ocean  voyage  ? 


48 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


8.  Name  the  first  line  of  steamers  established  across 
the  Atlantic. 

9.  AVhat  is  the  first  step  taken  in  building  a  steamer? 

10.  What  must  these  drawings  show  ? 

11.  Wliat  is   the  process  that  is  named  "fairing  the 
ship"? 

12.  What  is  the  ^  scrive-board  "  ? 

13.  Describe  the  process  of  making  the  ship's  hull. 

14.  When  is  a  vessel  ready  for  the  launching? 

15.  How  many  tons  of  steel  in  the  hull  of  the  St.  Louis? 

16.  What  is  added  to  the  vessell  after  it  is  launched  ? 

17.  Show  the  relative  length  of  the  St.  Louis ;  the  rela- 
tive height. 

18.  Describe  some  of  the  furnishings  of  the  modern 
steamer. 

19.  Tell  something  of  the  capacity  of  the  hold  of  a 
modern  steamer. 

20.  Tell  the  work  of  the  stevedores. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


All  Ocean  Voyage  in  tlie  St.   Louis. 

We  watched  the  building  of  an  American 
steamer  in  the  last  chapter,  and  now  we  will  take 
a  trip  in  the  completed  steamer. 

The  scheduled  route  for  the  St.  Louis  is  from 
iSTew  York  to  Southampton,  England. 

All  steamers  carry  freight.  It  serves  as  ballast, 
occupies  space  that  could  not  otherwise  be  utilized, 
and  even  with  passenger  steamers,  like  the  St. 
Louis,  is  a  source  of  considerable  revenue.  In  the 
fall,  American  apples,  peaches,  pears,  etc.,  are 
.shipped  in  cold  storage,  and  find  a  ready  sale  in 
the  English  markets  —  especially  the  California 
fruits.  To  meet  this  European  demand  for  Cali- 
fornia fruit  our  transcontinental  lines  of  railway 
run  special  refrigerator  trains  twice  each  week 
from  the  Pacific  coast  during  the  season  of  fruit 
transportation. 

American  beef  is  also  taken  over  at  every  voy- 
age (in  cold  storage),  large  shipments  being  sent 
from  the  Chicago  beef  companies. 

All  meat  exports  must  be  stamped  with  the 
Government    inspector's   stamp   before   shipment. 


Breadstuffs  are  also  carried,  with  a  miscellaneous 
list  of  other  commodities;  but  fruits,  meats  and 
breadstuifs  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  ship's  com- 
mercial cargo  from  this  port. 

While  the  stevedores  are  storing  away  the  cargo 
and  filling  the  coal-bunkers,  let  us  stand  back  from 
the  pier  and  see  the  ship  receive  her  passengers 
for  the  contemplated  voyage. 

For  the  winter  season  of  the  year  there  are 
generally  150  first-class,  100  second  class,  and  from 
400  to  500  steerage  passengers.  The  average 
number  of  passengers  for  the  summer  season  is 
350  first-cabin,  200  second-cabin,  and  700  to  800 
steerage.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  first-class  pas- 
sengers have  state-rooms  on  upper  deck,  second- 
class  on  second  or  middle  deck,  and  steerage  in 
the  hold  or  on  the  first  fioor. 

The  cost  of  the  voyage  varies  with  location  of 
state-room  as  well  as  the  season  of  the  year.  In 
winter,  the  rate  from  Xew  York  to  Southampton 
is  approximately:  first-class  passengers,  $60  and 
upward  each  way,  less  ten  per  cent,  on  return  voy- 
age ;  second-class,  $37  each  way,  less  five  per  cent., 
return  voyage;  steerage,  about  $27  the  year 
around.  In  summer,  first-cabin  rates  are  $100 
and  upward  each  way,  less  the  usual  ten  per  cent, 
on  the  return  trip ;  second-cabin,  $45  and  upward, 
less  five  per  cent.,  return  trip. 

Ten  minutes  before  the  departure,  the  ship's 
mail  arrives;  the  bugle-call  announces  to  all  vis- 
itors that  the  time  for  leave-takings  is  at  hand. 

Promptly  at  10  a.  m.  Wednesday  morning  the 
officer  of  the  deck  calls  "  cast  off,"  the  deep-toned 
whistle  gives  the  signal  for  ropes  to  drop  from 
pier  No.  14,  the  gang-planks  are  hoisted,  the  St. 
Louis  is  swung  around  bow  to,  and  starts  down 
the  bay  from  the  North-river  pier.  (The  Hudson 
is  called  locally  "  North  river.")  Quietly  our 
steamer  passes  the  lower  end  of  Manhattan  Island 
on  the  left,  where  is  situated  Castle  Garden,  made 
famous  by  Jennie  Lind,  Patti  and  Nilsson  years 
ago,    and    where   thousands   of   immigrants   have 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


49' 


Steamship  St.  Louis. 


"entered"  this  country.  A  great  aquarium  is 
now  located  at  this  place. 

Xear  Castle  Garden,  at  the  extreme  end  of  Man- 
hattan Island,  is  the  Battery  with  its  fine  park  and 
sea-wall  promenade.  Xow  we  pass  Castle  Will- 
iam, a  circular  battlement  on  Governor's  Island; 
see  Bedloe's  Island,  whose  Liberty  light  illumines 
the  upper  bay  at  night. 

The  bay  pilot  now  carefully  directs  the  steamer 
through  the  shipping  of  the  harbor  down  the  Xar- 
rows,  with  Tompkins  Light  and  Fort  Wadsworth 
(Staten  Island)  at  the  right  and  the  grim  guns  of 
Fort  Hamilton  on  the  left. 

Xow  we  enter  the  widening  channel  of  the 
lower  bay ;  see  sharply  to  our  left  the  Coney  Light, 
and  far  to  the  north  the  Sandy  Hook  Light,  toward 
which  our  steamer  seems  pointing. 

Soon  we  see  ship  after  ship  at  anchorage,  and, 
wondering  what  this  means,  ask  one  of  the  crew, 
who  informs  us  that  we  are  at  Quarantine  anchor- 
age.    Just  as  we  round  the  Romer  Shoal  Liffht 


our  vessel  turns  in  a  graceful  curve  to  the  east, 
the  pilot  tug  receives  the  harbor  pilot,  whistles  a 
parting  salute,  and  our  steamer  stands  squarely 
out  to  sea.  The  time  from  the  dock  to  Sandy 
Hook  was  100  minutes. 

The  waves  now  come  with  a  long,  rolling  swell, 
and  break  away  from  the  bow  in  a  myriad  of 
wavelets. 

Great  canopies  of  smoke  roll  out  of  the  immense 
smokestacks,  and  as  we  watch  it  curling  and  roll- 
ing far  astern  we  observe  that  the  ship's  log  has 
been  heaved.  You  ask.  What  is  the  log  ?  Our  an- 
swer is,  that  it  is  a  careful  measure  of  the  ship's 
distance  and  speed.  Attached  to  an  intricate  indi- 
cator with  a  dial-plate  is  a  strong  quarter-inch  rope 
one  thousand  feet  long,  which  is  attached  to  the 
stern  end  of  the  vessel  between  the  screw  and  the 
rudder.  This  dial-plate  registers  for  the  ship  in 
the  same  way  a  speed-indicator  registers  the  bicy- 
cle's speed.  Being  so  long,  the  log  trails  far  be- 
hind the  vessel,  beyond  the  reach  of  the  action  of 


50 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


the  twin  screws,  which,  churn  the  water  into  a 
great  seething  mass  of  white  and  sparkling  spray, 
leaving  "  soapsuds "  far  to  the  ship's  rear. 

But  look!  Down  the  horizon  to  the  west  sink 
the  receding  shores  of  the  homeland,  while  to  the 
north,  east  and  south  stretches  the  limitless  ex- 
panse of  rollicking  green-tinted  waves.  Just  now 
the  ship's  orchestra  strikes  a  patriotic  air,  that  is 
caught  up  bj  scores  of  voices.  That  music  on  the 
water !  Surely,  "  America  "  was  never  more  feel- 
ingly sung  nor  seemed  more  soul-inspiring. 

Look  down  at  the  water,  and  see  how  rapidly  it 
is  seeking  the  rear.  Captain  Randall,  who  is  on 
deck,  tells  us  that  we  are  now  traveling  at  the  rate 
of  25  miles  an  hour.  '  We  are  in  the  lower  route, 
which  is  known  as  the  "  Southern  route,"  and  is 
followed  from  January  15th  to  August  23d.  The 
distance  from  Sandy  Hook  to  the  Needles  (off 
Southampton)  is  3184  geographical  miles,  or 
"  knots  "  as  the  sailor  calls  them.  The  upper  or 
"  Northern  route "  is  used  from  August  24th  to 
January  14th,  and  is  the  shorter  one,  being  3075 
knots  from  Sandy  Hook  to  Needles. 

The  icebergs,  which  float  down  from  the  north 
during  the  late  winter  and  early  spring  and  sum- 
mer, have  caused  all  steamer  lines  to  establish  the 
routes  as  above  named.  All  lines  have  agTeed 
upon  a  certain  course  for  east-bound  and  another 
course  for  west-bound  steamers,  so  that  the  danger 
from  collision  is  r^vedXXj  reduced.  Thus  thess 
stately  palaces  of  the  sea  travel  in  as  definite  and 
regular  roads  through  the  ocean  as  the  vehicles 
of  land  transit  have  marked  and  laid  out  for 
them. 

Hearing  the  ship's  bells,  we  seek  the  mate  to 
explain  to  us  the  "  watches  "  on  shipboard.  This 
is  the  explanation  that  we  received:  The  day  is 
divided  into  seven  parts,  and  each  watch  is  four 
hours  long,  save  from  4  p.  m.  to  8  p.  m.  This  is 
divided  into  two  watches  of  two  hours  each,  called 
the  first  and  second  dog-watch  respectively.  The 
relays  of  men  are  known  as  port  and  starboard 


watch  respectively,  from  location  of  quarters  on 
shipboard. 

The  appetizing  odors  from  the  ship's  kitchen 
lead  us  now  to  study  the  scheduled  program  of 
meals  for  a  steamer.  Breakfast  is  at  8  a.  m., 
lunch  on  deck  (to  an  inlander  a  well-ordered 
dinner)  11  a.  m.,  dinner  1  p.m  .,  tea  5  p.  m.,  and 
supper  at  9  p.  m.  The  feast  of  the  day  is  dinner, 
and  each  one  served  would  outwit  Delmonico  to 
surpass. 

At  each  dinner,  twenty  bushels  of  potatoes,  one 
thousand  pounds  of  meat,  one  hundred  and  fifty 
loaves  of  bread  and  seventy  pounds  of  coffee  are 
consumed,  to  say  nothing  of  the  pastry  and  other 
delectables  at  dinner. 

The  chief  engineer,  on  learning  that  we  desire 
to  visit  the  hold  and  see  the  furnaces,  sends  a 
guide,  who  pilots  us  down  the  hatchway  and  into 
the  "  infernal "  region  of  the  ship.  The  heat  is 
intense,  and  we  see  the  firemen  and  "  trimmers  " 
bared  to  the  waist,  with  perspiration  coursing 
down  their  backs,  energetically  striving  to  satisfy 
the  red  throats  of  the  sixty-four  furnaces  with  coal 
and  regulate  the  energy  thus  imparted.  The  chief 
engineer  informs  us  that  the  average  daily  con- 
sumption of  coal  is  330  tons,  requiring  the  employ- 
ment of  114  firemen  and  trimmers.  This  coal 
develops  an  energy  equal  to  the  combined  strength 
of  20,000  horses,  and  sends  this  "  floating-  city " 
through  the  water  at  an  average  speed,  in  fair 
weather,  of  25  miles  per  hour. 

We  now  follow  our  guide  past  the  coal-bins, 
that,  though  being  fast  emptied,  show  tons  upon 
tons  remaining  of  the  2600  tons  taken  on  at  New 
York.  When  we  reach  deck  again  we  become  in- 
terested in  the  ship's  log-book. 

At  the  companion-way  to  each  dining-room  we 
observe  a  neat  chart  of  the  ship's  course,  the  map 
being  divided  by  cross-lines  into  little  squares. 
From  New  York  to  Southampton  is  a  map  line 
showing  the  ship's  course,  and  each  day  at  10  a.  m. 
the  distance  of  the  previous  day's  voyage  is  indi- 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


51 


cated  by  a  dot  (.)  on  the  "course  line"  of  the 
map,  and  the  distance  from  the  last  dot  indicates 
so  many  knots.  In  this  way  each  passenger  is  able 
to  follow  the  vessel  in  its  course,  and  also  knows 
its  daily  speed.  So  accurately  is  the  "  course  line  " 
on  the  map  followed  by  the  pilot  that  a  variation 
to  exceed  two  or  three  miles  is  rarely  known  in  the 
long  voyage  of  over  3000  miles.  The  pilot's  place 
of  business  is  on  the  upper  or  hurricane  deck,  just 
behind  the  captain's  bridge.  The  pilot  is  a  mar- 
iner of  rare  skill  and  intelligence,  and  has  two  very 
unique  guides  to  aid  him  in  his  responsible  work. 
The  one  is  the  ship's  chronometer,  a  very  accurate 
time-measure,  which  swings  on  a  pivot,  face  up. 
It  is  placed  in  a  close  protecting-case,  and  is  quite 
indispensable  and  exceedingly  valuable.  The  other 
guide  is  a  mariner's  compass,  which  is  a  careful 
indicator  of  direction.  It  is  about  eight  inches 
in  diameter,  and  so  carefully  adjusted  that  the 
ship's  motion  cannot  affect  the  unerring  needle. 
A  second  compass  is  placed  on  the  after  deck, 
where  the  signal-flags  are  also  found. 

The  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  ship  are  taken 
at  noon  meridian,  and  at  such  other  regular  periods 
as  the  captain  may  deem  advisable.  This,  with 
the  distance  indicated  by  the  speed-indicator  of 
the  log  at  the  stern,  gives  the  data  for  the  log-book. 

Here  is  an  abstract  from  the  best  voyage  the  St. 
Louis  log  records,  and  it  shows  how  the  log-book 
is  kept : 


Date, 
1896. 

Distance, 
Knots. 

Latitude. 

Ixyngitude. 

Remarks. 

Aug.  1 

Aug.  2 

Aug.  3 

Aug.  4 
Aug.  5 
Aug.  6 

510 

477 

519 

530 
520 
499 



Left  Southampton  12:12  p.  m.;* 

50.31 

50.30 

48.50 
45.18 

13.38 

27.05 

40.28 
52.05 

passed  Needles  2:02  p.  m. 
Light  S.  W.  winds  ;  hazy ;  sea 

smooth. 
Light  variable  winds ;  sea 

smooth. 
Moderate  winds  ;  light  sea. 
S.  W.  breeze ;  light  fogs. 
To  Sandy  Hook.    Lightship 

passed  at  11:26  a.  m.;  passen- 
gers landed  1:56  p.  m.  Friday. 
Passage  6  days,  2  hours,  24 
minutes  :  average  speed  per 
hour,  20.867  knots. 

Total . . 

3055 

*  Greenwich  mean  time. 


Whi^e  copying  this  we  hear  a  stir,  and  as  we 
hurry  (ieckward  we  learn  that  a  streak  of  smoke 
has  been  sighted  far  to  the  east ;  later  the  funnel- 
tops  appear  above  the  water,  and  finally  a  great 
steamer  rises  out  of  the  sea.  We  level  our  glasses, 
seek  in  vain  for  some  identity,  and  have  about 
concluded  it  to  be  a  "tramp  ship"  (a  ship  that  be- 
longs to  no  regular  line  and  makes  no  scheduled 
points  regularly),  when  the  officer  of  the  deck  in- 
forms us  it  is  a  North  German  Lloyd  Liner.  He 
then  tells  us  that  a  regular  liner  is  told  at  sea  by 
the  color  of  her  funnels  and  the  line  flag.  We  find 
that  our  black  funnels  with  a  clear  white  band,  and 
our  white  flag  with  a  blue  spread-eagle  in  the  cen- 
ter, reveal  our  identity  at  sea,  for  these  are  the 
marks  of  the  American  line,  and  are  found  on  all 
its  Xew  York  to  Southampton  vessels.  The  Ameri- 
can line  'New  York  to  Continental  ports  bears  the 
same  funnel-marks,  but  carries  a  white  swallowtail 
flag  with  a  red  star  in  the  center ;  hence  it  is  known 
as  the  Eed  Star  line.  The  stranger  has  a  cream- 
colored  funnel,  and  flies  a  white  flag  with  a  blue 
key-and-anchor  crossed  in  the  center  of  a  laurel 
wreath.  Our  signal  flags  are  out,  and  questions 
asked:  "Name?  Where  from  and  whither 
bound  ? "  The  answer  is  signalled  back :  "  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  der  Grosse.  Bremen  to  New  York."  It 
is  one  of  the  swiftest  of  the  transatlantic  fleet,  and 
her  majestic  sweep  across  the  ship's  horizon  was 
the  event  of  that  day. 

The  Saturday  evening  entertainment  was  the 
feature  of  the  voyage.  This  consisted  of  a  mixed 
program,  arranged  by  the  ship's  passengers  and 
crew.  After  the  program  was  made  up,  it  was 
printed  on  the  ship's  press,  and  souvenir  copies 
sold  to  passengers.  The  music  was  excellent,  as 
good  musicians  are  found  on  nearly  every  voyage. 
During  the  interval  between  the  first  and  second 
parts  of  the  program,  a  collection  was  taken,  which 
amounted  to  several  hundred  dollars.  On  Staten 
Island  is  a  Sailors'  Home,  and  at  Southampton  is 


62 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


a  Sailors'  Orphans'  Home.  To  tlie  support  of 
these  go  all  the  proceeds  of  the  mid-ocean  enter- 
tainments. Often  $600  or  $700  is  netted,  and 
sent  to  these  homes  at  either  end  of  the  steamer 
route. 

The  passengers  are  called  to  the  Sabbath  morn- 
ing service  by  the  ship's  bell.  This  service  is  held 
in  the  first-cabin  dining-room,  to  which  the  second- 
cabin  passengers  are  invited.  The  Episcopal  serv- 
ice is  read  on  the  St.  Louis,  sometimes  by  the  cap- 
tain and  sometimes  by  the  ship's  surgeon.  The 
music  is  a  special  feature  of  the  morning  service, 
one  of  the  stewards  being  a  master  player  on  the 
pipe-organ.  Frequently  a  special  evening  service 
will  be  held  in  the  second  cabin  by  some  traveling 
clergyman. 

The  crew  are  governed  by  the  bells  that  are  rung 
every  half -hour  to  indicate  to  them  the  time.  One 
bell  is  added  each  half-hour  of  the  watch,  so  that 
the  last  half-hour  of  the  four-hour  watch  w^ould  be 
indicated  by  eight  bells,  the  last  half-hour  of  each 
dog-watch  is  indicated  by  four  bells,  as  they  are 
two  hours  long, —  first  dog-watch,  4  to  6  p.  m.  ; 
second,  6  to  8  p.  m. 

The  first  land'  sighted  proves  to  be  the  Scilly 
Islands,  just  o:ff  Land's  End,  England.  Just  as 
we  are  filled  with  rejoicing  at  once  more  seeing  the 
welcome  land,  the  islands  are  passed,  and  land  is 
again  lost  to  view  until  the  great  Lizard's  Head 
juts  above  the  horizon,  far  to  the  northw^est. 

We  now  enter  the  most  dangerous  part  of  the 
English  Channel,  the  vicinity  of  the  Eddystone 
Reef,  and  our  pilot  steers  to  the  north  to  avoid  the 
dangerous  rocks.  Here  are  three  principal  ridges 
of  rocks,  about  ten  miles  south  of  Plymouth  Sound 
entrance,  that  are  covered  at  high  tide.  Upon  the 
middle  ridge  stands  the  Eddystone  lighthouse, 
built  of  Portland  stone  incased  in  granite,  whose 
foundation  is  dovetailed  into  the  rocks  of  the  reef. 
The  present  lighthouse  is  the  third  one  built  on  this 
site,  and  though  its  light  is  sixty-eight  feet  above 
the  base,  the  sea  frequently  rises  so  high  that  it 


breaks  the  strong  plate-glass  that  protects  the  six- 
teen argand  burners  of  the  lantern. 

We  now  round  the  Bolt  Head,  leave  the  Bill  of 
Portland  far  to  the  north,  and  make  our  first  stop 
at  the  K'eedles,  the  Sandy  Hook  of  Southampton, 
from  which  time  is  reckoned. 

We  have  been  six  days,  twenty-three  hours  and 
sixteen  minutes  crossing  the  ocean. 

The  channel  pilot  climbs  on  board  and  directs 
our  steamer  up  the  Solent,  that  separates  the  Isle 
of  Wight  from  England,  into  the  harbor  of  South- 
ampton. This  has  all  the  benefits  of  a  land-locked 
harbor,  owing  to  the  proximity  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  giving  it  the  advantages  of  a  double  tide, 
or  four  tides  in  the  twenty-four  hours  of  the  day. 

The  city  proper  is  on  a  peninsula  formed  by 
the  estuary  of  the  river  Itchen  and  the  large  estuary 
of  the  river  Test.  The  city  numbers  about  75,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  an  important  commercial  port 
of  England. 

Our  pilot  now  turns  our  steamer  up  the  Itchen 
to  the  Empress  dock,  the  entrance  to  which  is  175 
feet  w4de.  Here  we  find  a  frontage  of  1900  feet. 
It  is  the  only  dock  in  Great  Britain  where  deep- 
water  loading  and  discharging  berths  can  be 
reached  by  the  largest  vessels  at  any  time  of  the 
day  or  night,  irrespective  of  the  tide. 

At  this  port  are  located  six  very  large  docks, 
paved  with  granite,  covering  an  area  of  250  acres, 
lined  with  good  warehouses,  with  hydraulic  cranes 
and  capstans  throughout  the  system.  All  the  docks 
and  their  approaches  are  brilliantly  lighted  by 
electricity.  Thus  we  find  that  Southampton  has 
one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  Europe,  where  steam- 
ers can  enter  and  leave  at  any  state  of  the  tide,  and 
all  steamers  are  able  to  go  direct  to  the  piers. 

Standing  on  the  pier,  we  observe  that  while  one 
side  is  being  relieved  of  her  cargo  and  the  passen- 
gers are  going  off,  the  steamer  is  receiving  her  re- 
turn cargo  and  coaling  from  the  other  side.  Ma- 
chinery, cement,  glass,  rugs,  teas  and  dry-goods 
shipments  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  return  cargo. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


53 


Many  large  dry-goods  firms  in  the  United  States 
make  weekly  shipments  from  Paris  and  London 
via  the  American  line  steamers. 

The  steamers  of  this  line  carry  a  light  mail  on 
the  return  voyage,  as  the  English  steamers  take 
most  of  the  mail  from  this  port,  giving  only  the 
^'  left  over  "  mail  and  some  most  important  "  late  " 
mail  for  the  American  liners. 

The  American  steamers  start  for  the  home-land 
from  the  Empress  dock  at  noon  (Greenwich  time) 
each  Saturday.  It  takes  about  two  hours  to  reach 
the  Nee'dles  on  the  return  trip.  A  few  miles  out 
from  this  point  the  channel  pilot  is  dropped  and 
the  return  trip  fairly  begun. 

QUESTION     SUMMARY. 

1.  Discuss  the  freight  traffic  of  passenger  steamers 
from  New  York  to  England. 

2.  What  are  the  usual  differences  between  cost  of 
transportation  and  the  location  on  board  ship  of  the 
classes  of  passengers  from  New  York  to  Southampton  ? 

3.  Follow  the  St.  Louis  from  her  North  river  pier  to 
Sandy  Hook,  on  her  outward  voyage. 

4.  Describe  a  ship's  log. 

5.  When  do  vessels  follow  the  "southern  route" 
across  the  Atlantic  ?    Why  ? 

6.  What  is  the  usual  program  of  meals  for  a  steamer? 

7.  What  are  the  ship's  "  watches  "  ? 

8.  Tell  the  coal  consumption  and  the  number  of  fur- 
naces of  our  ship. 

9.  Describe  the  "course  line." 

10.  What  is  the  business  of  the  pilot? 

11.  Name  and  describe  the  two  invaluable  instruments 
that  aid  the  pilot. 

12.  What  is  the  log-book,  and  what  should  it  show  ? 

13.  What  is  a  "  tramp"  ship? 

14.  How  is  a  regular  liner  told  at  sea  ? 

15.  How  do  vessels  communicate  at  sea? 

16.  What  charitable  institutions  are  supported  largely 
by  mid-ocean  entertainments  on  American  line  steamers  ? 

17.  Where  is  the  most  dangerous  part  of  the  English 
Channel? 

18.  AVhy  is  the  Eddystone  Reef  so  dangerous  to  navi- 
gation? 

19.  Describe  the  Eddystone  lighthouse. 

20.  Between  what  two  points  is  time  reckoned  on  a 
New  York-Southampton  voyage  ? 


21.  What  is  the  usual  time  recorded  for  a  voyage  be- 
tween New  York  and  Southampton  ? 

22.  What  value  does  the  navigator  attach  to  the  loca- 
tion of  the  Isle  of  Wight  ? 

23.  Name  the  advantages  of  Southampton  as  a  shipping 
port. 

24.  Why  do  American  line  steamers  bring  heavy  mail 
from  New  York  and  carry  a  light  mail  back  ? 

25.  What  constitutes  the  cargo  of  vessels  from  South- 
ampton to  New  York  ? 

26.  Describe  the  location  and  size  of  Southampton. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
Our  Consular  Service. 

A  CONSUL  is  an  officer  whom  the  nation  stations 
in  commercial  centers  of  foreign  countries,  to  pro- 
tect its  trade,  and  represent  the  nation's  commercial 
interests  in  that  port  or  district.  The  custom 
arose  during  the  twelfth  century,  when  the  Italian 
cities  appointed  officers  to  represent  the  trading 
companies  of  the  home  city  in  the  other  Italian 
cities.  By  the  sixteenth  century  all  the  commer- 
cial nations  of  Europe  had  adopted  this  Italian 
system;  and  when  our  government  was  formed. 
Congress  took  steps  to  empow^er  the  Secretary  of 
State  to  form  a  consular  system.  The  law  of  1792 
established  this  system,  and  Thomas  Jefferson,  Sec- 
retary of  State,  appointed  our  first  consuls,  whose 
compensation  was  to  be  obtained  from  fees  received 
for  services  performed.  The  consuls  were  to  be 
the  nation's  representatives  at  certain  specified 
ports,  to  look  after  the  commercial  interests  of  the 
nation,  and  have  nothing  to  do  with  political  affairs, 
which  belonged  to  the  diplomatic  service,  organ- 
ized about  the- same  time  by  the  same  officer,  the 
Secretary  of  State.  By  this  first  law  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  had  the  right  to  appoint.  A  number 
of  times,  Congress  attempted  to  grade  or  rank  the 
consular  service,  but  it  was  not  until  1856  that  any 
special  change  was  made.  By  a  statute  law  of 
Congress,  passed  that  year,  the  President  was  em- 
powered to  appoint  consuls,  subject  to  approval  of 


54 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


the  Senate,  and  the  service  was  divided  into  the 
following  grades  (according  to  importance)  : 

1.  Consul-General.  This  officer  has  charge 
over  a  consular  district  and  all  consuls  within  that 
district.  There  are  thirty-eight  U.  S.  Consuls- 
General  at  present. 

2.  Consul.  This  officer  is  sent  by  his  govern- 
ment to  a  specified  port,  and  upon  arrival  at  the 
stated  port  his  first  duty  is  to  exhibit  his  commis- 
sion to  the  authorities  of  the  government  to  which 
he  is  accredited,  to  obtain  sanction  of  appointment. 
This  sanction  is  a  document  entitled  an  "  exequa- 
tur," and  secures  to  him  such  privileges,  immuni- 
ties and  exemptions  as  his  predecessors  enjoyed, 
and  that  are  usually  granted  to  consuls  of  foreign 
countries  by  the  government  of  the  nation  control- 
ling the  port  to  which  he  has  been  sent. 

The  consul's  chief  duties  are  as  follows: 
(a)   To  register  and  report  arrival  and  depart- 
ure of  every  ship  of  his  nation's  flag  that  visits 
his  port. , 

(6)  To  inspect  and  sign  invoices  of  above- 
named  ships'  cargoes. 

(c)  To  forward  a  list  of  passports  signed  or 
"vised"  (examined  and  indorsed). 

(d)  To  send  the  State  Department  a  list  of 
marriages  and  deaths  of  his  nation's  citizens  within 
his  jurisdiction. 

(e)  To  furnish  the  State  Department  with  a 
list  of  his  nation's  citizens  living  within  his  dis- 
trict. 

(/)  Must  report  to  his  consulate  (or  State  De- 
partment if  no  consul-general  has  jurisdiction), 
quarterly,  his  report  covering  all  transactions,  re- 
ceipts, expenditures,  etc.,  of  the  quarter. 

(g)  Must  frequently  inform  consulate  or  secre- 
tary of  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  port,  and  fur- 
nish such  other  statistics  as  shall  be  important  to 
his  nation.  (Under  this  latter  head,  statistics  on 
commerce,  navigation,  manufacturing,  emigration, 
agriculture,  tonnage  and  harbor  dues,  lighthouse 
service,  and  finances  of  all  principal  commercial 


nations  of  the  world,  have  been  obtained  through 
our  consulates.) 

(h)  The  American  consul  can  be  employed  by 
the  individual  citizen  to  assist  him  in  the  transac- 
tion of  private  business.  The  consul  can  adminis- 
ter oaths;  take  testimony;  deeds  executed  by  him 
are  valid;  he  may  administer  on  the  estates  of 
Americans  dying  abroad,  and  can  send  home  the 
proceeds  of  the  estate  to  be  distributed  to  the  legal 
heirs. 

(i)  In  Japan,  Turkey,  and  China,  any  Ameri- 
can charged  with  crime  is  tried  by  the  American 
consul  of  the  district  in  which  the  crime  was  com- 
mitted. 

(j)  The  seaman  may  apply  to  the  consul  for  the 
protection  of  his  legal  rights,  and  the  destitute 
mariner  of  an  American  vessel  is  entitled  to  re- 
ceive relief  from  the  consul  at  the  expense  of  the 
United  States  Government. 

(h)  The  chief  duty  of  a  consul  is  to  see  that  the 
commercial  laws  of  his  nation  are  complied  with  at 
his  port.  There  are  at  present  250  American  con- 
suls at  foreign  ports. 

3.  Commercial  Agent.  This  officer  is  stationed 
at  a  commercial  port  of  minor  importance,  yet  the 
trade  of  which  justifies  the  maintaining  of  a  con- 
sular agent,  to  do  all  he  can  to  assist  his  fellow- 
citizens  in  their  trade  relations,  and  send  reports 
to  the  home  government  pertaining  to  matters  of 
general  commercial  interest.  At  present  the  United 
States  maintains  twenty-five  commercial  agencies. 

Until  recently,  no  special  qualifications  were  re- 
quired for  the  consular  service,  and  no  specified 
term  of  office  was  named.  Under  these  conditions 
the  better  positions  were  frequently  looked  upon 
as  party  "  plums,"  and  too  frequently  the  service 
suffered  in  the  payment  of  "  party  debts,"  "  politi- 
cal rewards,"  etc.  An  executive  order  from  the 
President  September  20th,  1895,  provided  that  all 
vacancies  then  or  thereafter  existing  in  a  consulate 
or  commercial  agency,  when  the  salary  is  between 
$1000  and  $2500,  shall  be  filled  by  (a)  transfer  or 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


65 


promotion  of  a  competent  person;  (&)  by  appoint- 
ment of  a  person  whose  ability  has  been  proven  by 
former  service  in  the  Department  of  State;  (c)  or 
by  appointment  by  the  President  of  a  person  who, 
by  examination  of  a  board  of  three  persons  selected 
by  the  Secretary  of  State,  shall  be  found  qualified 
for  the  duties  of  the  office.  This  order  has  been 
quite  helpful  in  strengthening  the  consular  service, 
as  it  brings  to  the  service  competent  men,  and  does 
not  so  frequently  deprive  the  service  of  men  whose 
experience  makes  them  most  valuable  consuls. 
England  requires  her  consuls  to  pass  a  test  before 
entering  the  service.  They  must  be  able  to  read 
and  write  fluently  in  the  language  of  the  country 
to  which  they  desire  to  be  sent,  and  to  be  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  commercial  usages  of  said  coun- 
try. France  educates  her  consuls  especially  for 
the  service,  and  each  candidate  must  receive  a  di- 
ploma from  a  national  school  before  he  can  enter 
the  service.  He  then  enters  the  lowest  rank,  and 
must  have  three  years'  successful  service  in  the 
lower  order  before  he  can  gain  promotion  to  a 
higher  rank  in  the  service.  The  same,  or  a  simi- 
lar plan,  for  selection  of  consuls,  is  followed  in 
Germany,  Belgium,  Austria,  Italy,  and  other  Eu- 
ropean commercial  nations. 

SALARIES. 

The  British  consul  at  Xew  York  receives  $12,- 
500;  French,  $12,000;  German,  $10,000;  Rus- 
sian, $10,000.  !N^ew  York  is  the  most  important 
commercial  port  in  America,  and  indicates  the 
maximum  salary  paid  consuls  by  the  above  nations. 
The  American  Consul-General  at  London  receives 
$5000;  at  Paris,  $5000;  at  Berlin,  $4000;  at 
St.  Petersburg,  $3000.  This  illustrates  the  maxi- 
mum salary  our  nations  pays  its  consuls. 

If  the  diplomatic  service  should  make  the  con- 
sul the  minister  resident,  the  salary  is  made  com- 
mensurate with  the  rank.  To  illustrate:  H.  ^. 
Allen,  Consul-General  at  Seoul,  Korea,  is  now 
minister   resident   as   well,    and   receives   $7500. 


This  is  the  highest  salary  paid  a  consular  offi- 
cer. 

The  consuls-general  receive  salaries  as  follows: 
One  receives  $1500  per  year;  three,  $2000;  one, 
$2500;  thirteen,  $3000;  two,  $3500;  seven, 
$4000;  one,   $4500;  nine,  $5000. 

The  consuls  receive  salaries  as  follows:  One 
(at  Liverpool)  receives  $5000  per  year;  five, 
$3500;  twenty-two,  $3000;  thirty-three,  $2500; 
sixty-three,  $2000;    seventy-five,  $1500. 

The  rest  of  the  consuls  receive  a  salary  of  $1000, 
or  a  salary  determined  by  the  fees  collected.  The 
salary  of  the  commercial  agent  is  determined  by 
the  fees  collected,  and  varies  from  $800  to  $1500, 
the  average  being  $1000  per  year.  There  are 
many  clerks  and  agents  of  the  service,  besides  the 
officers  of  rank.  These  agents  generally  receive  a 
monthly  salary.  Besides  the  above  are  special  con- 
sular clerks  who  are  members  of  the  consulate  in 
the  largest  commercial  ports.  Counting  the  agents 
and  clerks  with  the  officers  of  rank,  it  gives  750 
in  our  nation's  consular  service. 


QUESTION    SUMMARY. 

1.  What  is  a  consul? 

2.  What  municipalities  in  what  century  appointed  the 
first  consuls  ? 

3.  For  what  purpose  ? 

4.  When,  may  we  say,  all  commercial  Europe  had  con- 
suls? 

5.  When  and  by  whom  was  our  consular  system  estab- 
lished ? 

6.  When  was  the  President  empowered  to  appoint  con- 
suls? 

7.  Name  the  grades  of  the  consular  service. 

8.  Name  the  chief  duties  of  the  Consul-General. 

9.  Name  the  chief  duties  of  the  Consul. 

10.  What  is  the  essential  difference  between  a  Commer- 
cial Agent  and  a  Consul? 

11.  Why  were  consulates  long  considered  significant 
party  offices?  Ans.,  Because  no  special  qualifications 
were  required  and  no  specified  term  of  office  was  named. 

12.  When  and  how  was  this  changed  ? 

13.  What  has  been  the  result  to  the  consular  service  ? 


56 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


First  Lighthouse  built  within  limits  of  the  United  States 
(Boston  Harbor). 


14.  State  some  facts  in  reference  to  the  English  con- 
sular service. 

15.  What  are  some  requirements  in  the  French  con- 
sular service  ? 

16.  How  do  the  salaries  paid  American  consuls  com- 
pare with  salaries  paid  ranking  European  consuls  ? 

17.  Who  is  the  highest  paid  consular  officer  ?    Why  ? 

18.  What  are  the  nature  and  object  of  the  consular  re- 
ports published  by  the  Government? 

19.  The  Commercial  Museum  of  Philadelphia  receives 
the  consular  reports  of  every  commercial  nation.  Its 
tabulated  facts  are  considered  invaluable  to  American 
commerce.    Can  you  tell  why  ? 

20.  Locate  our  nation's  consuls-general.    Answer: 


Name  of  City.     Where  f 

Antwerp, . 

Apia, . 

Bangkok, . 

Barcelona, . 

Berlin, 

Bogota, . 

Cairo, . 

Calcutta, . 

Cape  Town, 

Constantinople, . 

Dresden, . 

Frankfort, . 

Guatemala, . 

Guayaquil, . 

Halifax, . 

Hong  Kong, . 

London , . 

Melbourne, . 

Mexico, . 


Name  of  City.     Where  ? 

Monrovia, . 

Monterey, . 

Montreal, . 

Ottawa, . 

Panama, . 

Paris, . 

Rio  de  Janeiro, . 

Rome, . 

St.  Gall, . 

St.  Petersburg, . 

Santo  Domingo, . 

Seoul, , 

Shanghai, . 

Singapore, . 

Stockholm, . 

Tangier, . 

Teheran, . 

Vienna, . 

Yokohama, . 


CHAPTEE    IX. 
The  Llglit  Stations  of  Our  Nation. 

Lighthouses  are  of  quite  ancient  origin.  The 
first  one  known  to  authentic  history  was  the  Pharos 
of  Alexandria,  built  about  285  B.C. —  over  two 
thousand  years  ago.  The  oldest  existing  light- 
house is  believed  to  be  the  one  at  Corunna,  Spain, 
which  was  built  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  in  the 
second  century,  A.  D. ;  and  was  reconstructed  in 
1634. 

The  lighthouse  or  light-ship  is  a  great  aid  to 
commerce,  being  located  at  dangerous  places  on 
ocean  and  lake  shores.  "  With  the  lighthouse 
rays,  always  come  the  many  and  the  richly  laden 
vessels  of  commerce,"  says  Mr.  A.  B.  Johnson, 
chief  clerk  U.  S.  Lighthouse  Board. 

Europe  is,  and  for  many  centuries  has  been,  the 
great  commercial  continent  of  the  world.  She  is 
well  provided  with  lighthouses,  as  the  following 
table  shows.  This  table  was  prepared  by  Mr.  John- 
son, of  our  own  lighthouse  board,  in  1890: 

LIGHT   STATIONS  BY   CONTINENTS. 

Europe 3,309 

North  America 1,435 

Asia 476 

Oceanica 319 

Africa  219 

South  America 167 

Total 5,925 

Of  the  total  number  of  stations  on  this  continent, 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  has  443,  Newfoundland 


Shoal  Light  Station,  Virginia  Coast. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


57 


51,  Mexico  15,  British  Honduras  7,  Central 
America  11,  West  Indies  106,  and  the  United 
States  the  rest, —  more  than  one-half  that  the  con- 
tinent provides.  • 

The  lighthouse  system  of  our  nation  is  said  to 
have  practically  begun  with  our  commerce.  As 
early  as  1673,  Xantasket  citizens  sent  a  petition 
to  the  court  of  the  Province  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
asking  that  the  general  taxes  be  reduced  on  ac- 
count of  the  labor  and  expense  in  building  the 
beacon-light  at  Point  Allerton.  Four  hundred 
boat-loads  of  stone  were  used  in  erecting  a  base  for 
this  beacon.  The  beacon  consisted  of  an  iron  bas- 
ket, in  which  were  burned  "  fier-balls  of  pitch  and 
ocum."  The  first  lighthouse  on  this  continent  was 
built  on  Little  Brewster  Island,  at  the  entrance  of 
Boston  harbor,  in  1715-16,  at  a  cost  of  2286 
pounds  sterling,  and  was  supported  by  light-dues 
of  one  penny  per  ton,  levied  by  the  collector  of 
imports  of  Boston  on  all  incoming  and  outgoing 
vessels,  except  coasters.  Other  maritime  colonies 
followed  the  example  of  Massachusetts  in  estab- 
lishing lighthouses,  and  when  the  United  States, 
in  1789,  accepted  the  title  to  and  joint  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  lighthouses  of  the  coast,  there  were 
eight  in  number,  located  as  follows: 

1.  Portsmouth  Harbor  Light,  X.  H. 

2.  The  Boston  Light,  Little  Brewster  Island. 

3.  The  Gurnet  Light,  near  Plymouth,  Mass. 

4.  The  Brant  Point  Light,  Nantucket,  Mass. 

5.  Beaver  Tail  Light,  on  Conanicut  Island,  in 
K^arragansett  Bay,  R.  I. 

6.  Sandy  Hook  Light,  entrance  to  !New  York 
harbor. 

7.  Cape  Henlopen  Light,  entrance  to  Delaware 
Bay. 

8.  Charleston  Main  Light,  on  Morris  Island, 
Charleston,  S.  C. 

The  Federal  Government  placed  this  depart- 
ment under  the  direction  and  care  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury.  In  1792  the  office  of  Com- 
missioner of  Revenue  was  created,  and  the  super- 


intendence and  control  of  the  light  stations  de- 
volved upon  him.  This  was  a  temporary  officer; 
and  in  1820  we  find  the  Fifth  Auditor  of  the 
Treasury  Department  having  supervision  of  the 
U.  S.  Light  Service.  This  officer  was  Mr.  Stephen 
Pleasanton,  and  he  proved  a  most  efficient  officer, 
having  charge  of  this  department  until  the  crea- 
tion of  the  Lighthouse  Board,  in  1852.  During 
Mr.  Pleasanton's  term  as  General  Superintendent 
of  Lights  —  thirty-two  years  —  we  find  the  number 
of  lighthouses  increased  from  55  to  more  than  325 
lighthouses  and  light-ships,  with  numerous  buoys 
and  monuments  as  aids  to  navigation. 

By  act  of  Congress  in  1838,  the  lighthouse  sys- 
tem was  divided  into  districts  by  the  President, 
and  an  officer  of  the  navy  was  detailed  to  each  dis- 
trict with  a  revenue  cutter  or  hired  vessel,  with  in- 
structions to  make  a  careful  examination  of  the 
light  stations  in  his  district  and  report  to  General 
Superintendent  Pleasanton,  who  in  turn  was  to  re- 
port to  Congress.  From  the  general  report  thus 
obtained  the  plan  for  the  present  system  had  its 
origin. 

In  1845,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  Walker  had 
Lieutenants  Thornton  A.  Jenkins  and  Richard 
Bache  detailed  from,  the  navy  to  study  the  light- 
house systems  of  Europe,  especially  France  and 
Great  Britain.  They  were  directed  to  procure  in- 
formation as  to  the  organization  of  lighthouse  sys- 
tems, construction  of  lighthouses,  expense,  charac- 
ter and  efficiency  of  lights,  and  study  buoys  and 
lighting  apparatus  used  abroad.  These  men  spent 
a  year  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  Continent ;  and 
severail  months,  after  their  return  to  this  country, 
were  spent  in  inspecting  our  own  lighthouses  and 
their  needs.  These  men  sent  in  a  careful  and  most 
valuable  report,  recommending  changes  in  admin- 
istrative affairs,  in  arrangement  of  districts,  and 
lights  to  be  used.  In  presenting  this  report  to  Con- 
gress, Secretary  of  the  Treasury  Walker  closed 
with  the  following  remark :  "  It  is  obvious  that  a 
very  considerable  range  of  practical  and  theoreti- 


58 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


cal  knowledge  is  required  for  the  improvement  of 
the  system ;  more  than  can  be  looked  for  from  one 
individual,  however  eminent  in  science." 

The  proper  organization  of  the  system,  and 
planning  of  its  details,  require  the  efficient  head 
of  a  bureau  familiar  with  the  working  of  a  general 
organization, —  a  person  capable  of  furnishing  in- 
formation in  regard  to  the  coasts  and  harbors  from 
actual  surveys;  persons  minutely  acquainted  with 
the  wants  of  navigation,  with  the  details  of  location 
and  construction  of  the  lighthouses,  and  with  the 
chemical  and  mechanical  principles  involved  in 
lighting.  While  this  knowledge  cannot  be  obtained 
from  one  person,  a  board  may  be  organized,  with- 
out expense  to  the  Government,  by  which  the  sys- 
tem may  be  considered  in  all  its  particulars  and  an 
efficient  plan  of  action  recommended. 

In  May,  1851,  by  authority  of  Congress  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  appointed  a  board  of 
six  to  make  a  detailed  report  and  program  to  guide 
legislation  in  extending  and  improving  the  system 
of  construction,  illumination,  inspection  and  su- 
perintendence of  the  lighthouse  system  of  the 
Government.  Lieutenants  Jenkins  and  Bache 
were  both  members  of  this  Board.  Congress  acted 
upon  their  report,  and  passed  an  act  in  1852  estab- 
lishing the  Lighthouse  Board  as  it  at  present  exists. 

The  Lighthouse  Board  consists  of  two  officers 
of  the  navy,  of  high  rank,  two  engineer  officers  of 
the  army,  two  civilians  of  high  scientific  attain- 
ments, together  with  an  officer  from  the  army  en- 
gineers as  secretary.  The  Board  is  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
and  is  intrusted  with  "  all  administrative  duties 
relating  to  the  construction,  illumination,  inspec- 
tion and  superintendence  of  lighthouses,  beacons, 
buoys,  sea-marks,  and  their  appendages,  and  em- 
bracing the  security  of  foundations  of  existing 
works,  procuring  illuminating  and  other  appa- 
ratus, supplies,  and  materials  of  all  kinds  for 
building  and  keeping  in  good  repair,  buildings, 
vessels  and  buoys  of  the  United   States."     The 


Board  has  marked  the  coasts  of  the  nation  into 
lighthouse  districts.  An  inspector,  who  must  be 
either  an  army  or  navy  officer,  is  assigned  to  each 
district,  as  well  as  an  engineer  officer  of  the  army. 
The  inspectors  are  charged  witli  the  maintaining 
of  lights  and  lighthouses  and  the  discipline  of  the 
light-keepers.  The  district  engineers,  under  direc- 
tion of  the  engineer  secretary,  are  charged  with  the 
building  of  lighthouses,  with  keeping  them  in  re- 
pair, together  with  the  purchase,  setting  up  and 
repair  of  the  illuminating  apparatus. 

The  present  Board  has  built  up  a  corps  of  in- 
telligent light-keepers,  who  come  up  from  the 
lowest  rank  of  the  service  by  examination,  and  in 
this  way  receive  promotions,  with,  corresponding 
increase  in  pay.  The  term  is  practically  during 
good  behavior.  The  average  pay  of  a  lighthouse- 
keeper  is  $600  per  year.  The  United  States  em- 
ploys at  the  present  time  1400  lighthouse-  and 
fog-sign  al-keeper  s. 

The  lighthouse  service  is  a  training-school  for 
young  officers.  The  roll  of  lighthouse  inspectors 
is  said  to  contain  the  names  of  the  flower  of  the 
navy.  The  lighthouse  engineers  enroll  many  who 
have  established  a  name  for  army  engineers  in 
solving  problems  of  submarine  construction,  and 
whose  monuments  are  world-famous  lighthouses 
which  they  have  constructed. 

The  light  districts  of  the  United  States,  with 
boundary  limits,  are  as  follows : 

District  No.  1,  head  of  navigation  St.  Croix 
river,  to  Hampton  Harbor,  I^.H.,  74  lights  in  1900. 

Ko.  2,  Hampton  Harbor,  IST.  H.,  to  Elisha 
Ledge,  off  Warren  Point,  E.  I.,  90  lights. 

No.  3,  Elisha  Ledge  to  Shrewsbury  Bocks, 
New  Jersey  coast,  260  lights. 

No.  4,  Shrewsbury  Bocks  to  Metomkin  Inlet, 
Va.,  72  lights. 

No.  5,  Metomkin  Inlet  to  New  Biver  Inlet, 
N.  C,  142  lights. 

No.  6,  New  Biver  Inlet  to  Jupiter  Inlet,  Fla., 
59  lights. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


69 


Hen  and  Chickens,"  Light  Vessel  No.  2,  Massachusetts. 


"No.  7,  Jupiter  Inlet  to  Per  dido  Entrance,  Fla., 
197  lights. 

No.  8,  Perdido  entrance  to  southern  boundary 
of  Texas,  100  lights. 

JSTos.  9,  10,  11,  region  of  the  Great  Lakes,  414 
lights. 

No.  12,  southern  boundary  of  California  and 
northern  boundary,  46  lights. 

No.  13,  from  southern  boundary  of  Oregon  to 
northern  boundary  of  the  United  States,  including 
Alaska,  139  lights. 

No.  14,  from  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  on  Ohio  river,  to 
Cairo,  III,  966  miles,  with  300  miles  of  naviga- 
tion on  tributary  rivers,  508  post  and  floating 
lights. 

No.  15,  from  head  of  navigation  at  the  Missis- 
sippi river  to  Cairo,  111. ;  Missouri  river  to  Kan- 
sas City;  Illinois  river  from  LaSalle  to  mouth, 
359  post  and  floating  lights. 

No.  16,  from  Cairo,  111.,  to  New  Orleans,  La., 
358  lights. 

Lighthouses  are  always  placed  at  that  point  or 
place  on  the  coast  that  is  considered  dangerous  to 
commerce,  and  if  a  lighthouse  seems  impractica- 
ble at  that  point,  a  light-ship  is  placed  there,  or  a 
whistling-buoy.  To  further  aid  the  mariner  in 
thick  or  foggy  weather,  the  Lighthouse  Board  has 


placed  fog  signals.  With  a 
fog  signal  on  the  coast  and 
one  in  the  harbor,  the  mar- 
iner can  be  guided  to  his  an- 
chorage. Sailors  are  coming 
to  believe  that  they  can  be 
guided  by  sound  as  certainly 
as  by  light.  About  100  fog 
signals  are  now  operated  by 
either  steam  or  hot  air.  It 
cost  $600,000  to  establish 
these  signals,  and  the  yearly 
expense  to  maintain  them  is 
about  $100,000. 

A  word  should  here  be  said 
about  the  river  lights.  On  account  of  obstructions 
in  channels  and  the  tortuous  course  of  the  channels 
of  the  rivers,  commerce  on  Western  rivers  was 
formerly  restricted  to  daylight  motion.  As  over  a 
thousand  steamboats,  carrying  a  yearly  commerce 
of  1,200,000  tons,  were  employed  on  the  Missis- 
sippi, Ohio  and  Missouri  rivers,  as  early  as  1873, 
it  was  an  important  question  how  to  protect  and 
foster  this  commerce  of  at  least  $400,000,000  per 
year.  In  1874  a  survey  for  temporary  lights  and 
buoys  was  made,  and  upon  the  report  of  the  com- 
mittee recommending  the  extension  of  light  service 
to  these  rivers,  the  Lighthouse  Board  appointed  in- 
spectors and  engineers,  districted  the  rivers,  and 
proceeded  to  establish  lights. 


Detroit  River  Light  Station,  Michigan. 


60 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Ohio  River  Post  Light,  and  Lighthouse  Steam  Tender  "Lily." 

These  lights  I  will  here  describe.  The  lens  lan- 
tern is  suspended  from  an  arm  projecting  from  a 
post,  or  is  placed  on  the  post,  at  an  elevation  of 
eight  or  ten  feet  from  the  ground.  At  points 
■where  the  channel  is  made  dangerous  and  narrow 
by  permanent  obstructions,  buoys  have  been  placed 
as  day  marks,  to  which  lights  are  attached  as  night 
signals.  The  post  lights  are  placed  at  such  points 
as  present  needs  demand,  and  are  changed  as  the 
current  changes  or  "  blind  crossings "  appear. 
Keepers  for  these  lights  are  selected  from  among 
the  people  living  along  the  river  who  have  been 
found  trustworthy  and  awake  to  the  demands  of 
the  light  service. 

There  are  on  the  three  rivers  mentioned  more 
than  twelve  hundred  of  these  lights,  costing  on  an 
average  $156.28  each  per  year  for  maintenance. 
So  helpful  have  they  been  to  commerce,  that  the 
system  has  been  extended  along  other  rivers;  so 
that  more  than  sixteen  hundred  post  lights  are 
maintained  now  along  5000  miles  of  river  navi- 
gation. 

We  will  now  speak  of  the  construction  of  the 
lighthouses.  Previous  to  1840  all  lighthouses  on 
the  !N"ew  England  coast  were  either  conical  towers 
of  rubble-stone  masonry,  or  wooden  frame  towers 
erected  on  the  roofs  of  the  keepers'  dwellings. 
Since  then  the  construction  of  the  lighthouse  has 
depended   on   the   nature   of   the   ground   where 


erected,  the  sea  exposure,  and  the  amount  of  Con- 
gressional appropriation  for  lighthouse  construc- 
tion. 

Within  twelve  years  three  successive  stone  tow- 
ers were  demolished  at  the  Black  Rock  Beacon, 
on  Long  Island  Sound,  four  and  one-half  miles 
from  Bridgeport,  Conn.  Then  the  iron-pile  bea- 
con was  put  in  (1847),  that  is  standing  to-day. 
As  excavation  was  made,  and  six  twelve-ton  stones 
were  fitted  close  together,  bedded  in  concrete. 
Into  these  stones  were  set  five  wrought-iron  peri- 
phery piles  and  one  center  pile,  measuring  three 
to  five  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter.  These  piles 
are  solidly  joined  together,  and  capped  at  the  top, 
The  stone  towers  are  31  feet  high,  and  together 
cost  $21,000.  The  pile  beacon  is  34  feet  above 
low  water,  and  cost  but  $4000. 

The  Carysfort  Beef  Light  is  another  example 
of  the  iron-pile  system.  This  stands  on  a  coral 
reef,  below  which  is  a  softer  mass  of  calcareous 
sand.  Here  large  iron  foot-plates  were  used  to 
diffuse  the  pressure  over  130  square  feet  of  surface 


Carysfort  Reef  Light  Station,  Florida. 


I 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


61 


crust.  Nine  eight-incli  piles  placed  in  the  form 
.  of  an  octagon  were  passed  througli  center  eyes  in 
the  iron  plates,  and  driven  ten  feet  into  the  sand. 
Cross-ties  and  braces  give  rigidity  to  the  structure, 
and  the  keeper's  house  is  an  elevated  one,  built  in 
the  structure.  The  light  is  112  feet  above  low 
water.  This  tower  with  its  apparatus  cost  $105,- 
000,  and  was  completed  in  1852. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  iron-pile 
lighthouses  is  the  Sombrero  Key  lighthouse,  on 
Florida  Eeefs,  about  50  miles  east  of  Key  West. 
Its  light  is  140  feet  from  the  water,  and  has  a 
range  of  twenty  miles  at  sea.  The  frame  is  pyra- 
midal in  shape,  is  in  six  sections,  and  has  a  diam- 
eter of  56  feet  at  bottom  and  15  feet  at  the  top. 
The  keeper's  dwelling  is  in  the  second  section, 
made  of  boiler-iron  lined  with  Wood.  A  circular 
stairway  ascends  to  the  lantern,  which  is  also  of 
boiler-iron  lined  with  wood.  This  structure  cost 
$120,000,  and  although  built  fifty  years  ago,  is 
still  in  excellent  condition.  The  iron-plate  towers 
are  composed  of  cast-iron  panels  weighing  1200 


Sombrero  Key  Light  Station,  Florida. 


Rear  Beacon,  Paris  Island  Rouge,  South  Carolina. 

pounds;  the  panels  in  a  section  are  of  exactly 
the  same  size,  so  each  one  may  occupy  any  position 
in  the  ring  they  form  when  put  together.  These 
plates  are  provided  with  flanges,  so  as  to  connect 
the  several  tiers  of  plates,  and  the  plates  of  each 
tier  are  securely  bolted  into  the  succeeding  tier. 
The  whole  structure  rests  generally  on  a  concrete 
foundation,  to  which  the  lower  section  of  the 
tower  is  fastened  by  anchor  bolts  built  into  the 
concrete.  One  value  of  this  system  is,  that  when 
necessity  requires,  the  lighthouse  can  be  readily 
taken  down  and  moved. 

The  Hunting  Island  lighthouse  (South  Caro- 
lina) was  first  built  in  1875,  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
from  the  beach.  But  on  account  of  the  erosion  of 
the  land  by  the  sea  it  has  had  to  be  taken  down 
and  moved  a  mile  and  a  quarter  farther  inland. 
The  original  cost  of  this  lighthouse  was  $102,000. 

Where  the  soil  affords  an  inadequate  support 
for  a  masonry  foundation,  or  where  great  cheap- 
ness is  required,  iron  skeleton  towers  are  erected. 
The  light  at  the  Southwest  Pass  of  the  Mississippi 
illustrates  this  form,  as  does  the  Paris  Island 
Kouge  Light,  of  Port  Royal  Sound,  S.  C.     This 


62 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Tillamook  Rock  Light  Station,  Oregon. 

latter  is  a  triangular  pyramid,  132  feet  high, 
resting  on  six  circular  iron  disks  anchored  to  a 
concrete  foundation.  The  plan  of  this  light  was 
born  of  necessity,  as  Congress  failed  to  appro- 
priate a  fund  sufficient  to  build  the  light  the 
Board  had  planned  for.  The  light  used  is  a  loco- 
motive headlight  in  the  form  of  a  powerful  para- 
bolic reflector.  The  light  is  housed  by  day  and 
run  up  to  the  apex  of  the  triangle,  by  machinery, 
at  night.  This  is  said  to  be  the  most  economical 
light  station  in  our  nation,  the  entire  structure 
costing  but  $12,000. 

The  St.  Augustine  Light  is  a  good  illustration 
of  the  substantial  brick  towers.  Its  spiral  stripes, 
used  to  distinguish  it  from  adjacent  sea  lights  by 
day,  are  familiar  to  all  geography  students.  Our' 
nation  has  from  eight  to  ten  similar  brick-tower 
lights. 

Minot's  Ledge,  Massachusetts,  is  our  best  rep- 
resentative of  the  stone-tower  lights.  General 
Bernard,  a  great  civil  engineer,  says  of  Minot's 
Ledge  Light :  "  It  ranks,  by  the  engineering  diffi- 
culties surrounding  its  erection  and  by  the  skill 
of  science  shown  in  the  details  of  its  construction, 
among  the  chief  of  the  great  sea-rock  lighthouses 
of  the  world."  This  lighthouse  was  completed  in 
1860,  at  a  cost  of  $300,000. 

Probably  the  most  interesting  lighthouse  in  this 
country  is  the  Tillamook  Bock  lighthouse,  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  twenty  miles  south  of  the  mouth  of 
the    Columbia    river.      The    Tillamook    rock    is 


ninety-two  feet  above  the  sea;  is  very  steep 
on  three  sides,  and  so  dangerous  to  vessels 
that  in  1879  our  Government  decided  to  build 
a  lighthouse  on  the  rock.  It  was  with  great 
difficulty  that  a  working  party  could  be 
landed,  and  it  took  more  than  two  years  to 
complete  the  work.  The  Pacific  rolls  and 
surges  about  Tillamook  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  is  one  of  the  wildest  spots  on  earth. 
So  terrifying  is  this  place  that  the  keeper  has 
to  have  a  companion,  and  a  piano  has  been 
placed  in  the  keeper's  house  as  a  healthy  diversion 
for  both  men.  During  a  storm  ten  years  ago  the 
waves  broke  off  a  chunk  weighing  ninety  pounds, 
and  flung  this  fragment  entirely  through  the  lamp, 
136  feet  above.  Often  seas  dash  waves  twenty 
and  even  thirty  feet  above  the  lamp,  breaking  the 
glass  plates  surrounding  the  light.  Just  one 
month  before  this  lighthouse  was  completed,  an 
English  vessel  of  1040  tons  burden  was  dashed  to 
pieces  on  shore  one  mile  from  Tillamook,  and 
ship,  cargo  and  crew  were  lost. 

Lighthouses  receive  their  supplies  from  a  small 
vessel  called  a  "  tender,"  that  visits  the  light  about 
once  a  month.  The  tender  takes  supplies,  and 
brings  back  the  keeper's  reports  to  the  inspector 
and  letters  to  relatives  and  friends.  Twenty-two 
of  these  vessels  are  employed  on  the  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  coasts,  three  on  the  lakes,  three  on  rivers, 
and  two  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  lighthouse  lamp  is  surrounded  by  a  ring  of 
lenses,  which  revolve  by  clockwork.  Each  lens 
throws  a  beam  like  a  searchlight,  and  as  each 
beam  rests  on  the  spectator  only  an  instant,  the 
light  comes  to  the  sailor  in  flashes.  The  number 
of  seconds  these  flashes  are  apart,  together  with 
the  color  of  the  lenses,  indicates  to  the  sailor  what 
lighthouse  it  is.  The  most  of  the  heavy  lamps 
float  in  mercury,  to  make  them  turn  easier.  These 
lamps  attract  wild  ducks  and  sea  birds,  and  hun- 
dreds of  them  dash  themselves  to  death  against 
the  plate-glass  frame  surrounding  the  lamp. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


63 


The  Fresnel  lenticular  apparatus  is  used  in  our 
lighthouses.  Mr.  Alan  Stevenson,  the  great  Scotch 
lighthouse  engineer,  sajs  of  this  lamp :  "  Nothing 
can  be  more  beautiful  than  an  entire  apparatus 
for  a  fixed  light  of  the  first  order.  It  consists  of  a 
central  belt  of  refractors,  forming  a  hollow  cylin- 
der 6  feet  in  diameter  and  30  inches  high;  be- 
low it  are  six  triangular  rings  of  glass,  ranged 
in  a  cylinder  form,  and  above  a  crown  of  thirteen 
rings  of  glass,  forming  by  their  union  a  hollow 
cage,  composed  of  polished  glass  10  feet  high  and 
6  feet  in  diameter.  I  know  of  no  work  of  art 
more  beautiful  or  creditable  to  the  boldness,  ardor, 
intelligence  and  zeal  of  the  artist."  The  cost  of 
these  first-class  lights  varies  from  $4250  to  $8000. 
The  glass  used  varies  from  first  order  to  sixth 
order,  which  is  llf  inches  in  diameter  and  costs 
from  $200  to  $300. 

A  lighthouse-keeper  stands  by  his  light  as  long 
as  the  lighthouse  stands,  and  these  brave  men  will 
no  more  desert  their  posts  in  time  of  danger  than 
an  American  soldier  will  leave  his  gun  on  the  ad- 
vance of  an  enemy.  The  heroism  of  a  Grace  Dar- 
ling actuates  the  entire  corps,  and  the  great  value 
of  the  lighthouse  system  of  our  nation  in  its  pro- 
tection of  life  and  property  on  the  high  seas  can 
scarcely  be  overestimated. 

QUESTION    SUMMARY. 

1.  State  the  origin  of  the  lighthouse. 

2.  Who  is  believed  to  have  built  the  oldest  lighthouse 
now  in  existence  ?    In  what  century  ? 

3.  Why  is  the  lighthouse  a  factor  of  commerce  ? 

4.  What  continent  has  more  than  half  the  lighthouses 
of  the  world  ? 

5.  How  do  you  account  for  this  ? 

6.  Rank  the  continents  by  the  number  of  their  light 
stations. 

7.  Discuss  Point  Allerton  beacon  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

8.  Where  and  when  was  the  first  lighthouse  built  in 
America? 

9.  What  American  colony  led   in   establishing  light- 
houses ?    Why  ? 


10.  How  many  light  stations  on  the  Atlantic  coast  when 
our  Federal  Government  was  established,  in  1789? 

11.  Name  and  locate  these  stations. 

12.  Discuss  the  work  of  Mr.  Pleasanton  while  General 
Superintendent  of  Lights. 

13.  What  is  a  light-ship,  and  where  generally  located  ? 

14.  When  did  an  act  of  Congress  establish  lighthouse 
disti'icts,  and  what  can  you  say  of  the  results? 

15.  Describe  Jenkins  and  Bache's  tour  of  inspection. 

16.  What  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  lighthouse 
board  ? 

17.  Explain  the  personnel  of  the  Lighthouse  Board. 

18.  Name  the  administrative  duties  of  this  board. 

19.  Who  are  appointed  lighthouse  inspectors,  and  what 
are  their  duties? 

20.  Who  are  appointed  district  engineers,  and  what  are 
their  duties  ? 

21.  How  many  lighthouse  districts  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  our  nation  ? 

22.  How  many  light  districts  on  the  Great  Lakes  ? 

23.  How  many  light  districts  on  the  navigable  rivers  of 
the  interior? 

24.  What  rivers  in  these  districts  ? 

25.  Give  some  conception  of  the  commerce  of  these 
rivers. 

28.  Describe  the  character  of  the  river  lights. 

27.  How  are  keepers  of  these  lights  obtained  ? 

28.  What  is  the  approximate  total  cost  of  maintaining 
post  lights  for  the  5000  miles  of  river  navigation  now  in 
the  river  districts  ? 

29.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  fog  signal,  where  placed 
and  how  operated  ? 

30.  The  100  fog  signals  cost  what  sum  in  construction  ? 

31.  What  does  it  cost  to  maintain  them? 

32.  The  material  used  in  the  construction  of  a  light- 
house usually  depends  upon  what? 

33.  Describe  the  construction  of  the  iron-pile  Black 
Rock  beacon  of  1847. 

34.  Describe  the  Sombrero  Key  lighthouse  on  Florida 
Reefs. 

35.  What  is  the  best  representative  of  the  stone-tower 
lights?     Why? 

36.  Where  is  the  Tillamook  Light? 

37.  What  determined  the  establishment  of  a  lighthouse 
on  Tillamook  Rock? 

38.  Give  facts  that  demonstrate  this  to  be  one  of  the 
wildest  spots  on  earth. 

39.  What  is  the  lighthouse  tender  ? 

40.  Describe  a  lighthouse  lamp? 


64 


-  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Life-Saving  Station,  near  Cliff  House,  San  Francisco,  California,  U.S. A 


41.  "Where  is  a  locomotive  headlight  used  for  the  lamp? 

42.  Who  was  Grace  Darling? 

43.  What  is  the  average  salary  of  our  lighthouse-keep- 
ers? 

44.  What  can  you  say  of  the  character  of  these  men  ? 

45.  How  would  you  estimate  the  value  of  lighthouses 
to  commerce  ? 

CHAPTEK  X. 

The   Ijife-Savlng   Service   of   tlie 
United   States. 

The  Koyal  National  Lifeboat  Institution  of 
Great  Britain  is  called  the  honored  mother  of  all 
existing  life-saving  organizations  among  the  na- 
tions of  the  world. 

Our  present  system  is  of  recent  origin,  but  our 
Government  was  erecting  boat-houses  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  during  the  second  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  completing  its  contemplated 
plan  in  1850.  It  supplied  these  boat-houses  with 
surf-boats  and  other  life-saving  appliances,  and 
acted  in  conjunction  with  municipal  and  State 
authorities  in  saving  life  and  property  along 
storm-frequented  coasts.     It  was  almost  a  volun- 


teer service,  but  we  can  form  little  idea  of  its 
effectiveness,  as  no  records  were  kept  of  its 
work.  The  very  efficient  organization  known 
as  "  The  Massachusetts  Humane  Society " 
was  an  outgrowth  of  these  volunteer  life-sav- 
ing crews,  and  while  it  has  since  broadened 
its  work,  it  still  carries  on  a  most  effective 
life-saving  department,  with  many  stations 
along  the  Massachusetts  coast. 

The  present  system  of  life-saving  service 
was  called  into  being  in  1871,  and  by  act 
of  Congress  the  system  was  organized.  The 
first  stations  were  established  on  the  coasts 
of  New  Jersey  and  Long  Island.  In  1872 
the  coasts  of  Cape  Cod  were  added.  The  re- 
maining coast  of  New  England  and  the  At- 
lantic coast  from  Cape  Henry  to  Cape  Hat- 
teras  were  added  in  1874;  the  coast  from 
Cape  Henlopen  to  Cape  Charles  was  added  in 
1875 ;  the  eastern  coast  of  Elorida  and  portions  of 
the  lake  coasts  in  1876 ;  the  Pacific  coast  in  1877- 
78 ;  and  in  1880  the  coast  of  Texas  was  included 
in  the  territory  of  operation  in  the  National  Life- 
Saving  Service. 

There  are  now  10,000  miles  of  sea  and  lake 
coasts  under  the  Service  regulations.  This  area  is 
divided  into  twelve  districts,  with  life-saving  sta- 
tions as  follows: 

First  District  (coasts  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire),  14 
stations. 

Second  District  (coast  of  Massachusetts),  29  stations. 

Third  District  (coasts  of  Rhode  Island  and  Long  Island), 
41  stations. 

Fourth  District  (coast  of  New  Jersey),  42  stations. 

Fifth  District  (Atlantic  coast  from  Cape  Henlopen  to 
Cape  Charles),  18  stations. 

Sixth  District  (Atlantic  coast  from  Cape  Henry  to  Cape 
Fear  river),  31  stations. 

Seventh  District  (coasts  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
eastern  Florida),  10  stations. 

Eighth  District  (Gulf  coast),  8  stations. 

Ninth  District  (coasts  of  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario  and  the 
Louisville*  Station),  12  stations. 

Tenth  District  (coasts  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior),  17 
stations. 

Eleventh  District  (coast  of  Lake  Michigan),  28  stations. 

Twelfth  District  ( Pacific  coast),  15  stations. 

Total  number  of  stations,  265. 


•At  Louisville,  Ky.,  dangerous  falls  occur  In  the  Ohio  river.    For  this  rea- 
son it  has  been  found  advisable  to  have  at  this  point  a  floating  station. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


65 


By  act  of  Congress  of  June  18,  1878,  kn  in- 
vestigation is  required  to  be  made,  of  all  the  cir- 
cumstances connected  with  the  shipwrecks  occur- 
ring within  the  scope  of  the  operations  of  the  Life- 
Saving  Service,  involving  loss  of  life,  with  a  view 
of  determining  "  the  cause  of  the  disaster,  and 
whether  any  of  the  officers  or  employes  of  the  Serv- 
ice have  been  guilty  of  neglect  or  misconduct  in 
the  premises."  This  was  a  most  valuable  provi- 
sion, as  it  caused  a  detailed  account  of  each  disas- 
ter to  be  recorded  and  gives  the  Service  valuable 
data  of  its  work. 

In  1883  a  uniform  wage  system  was  established, 
and  has  proven  itself  quite  an  effective  element 
in  the  success  of  the  Service. 

The  chief  or  highest  officer  is  the  General  Su- 
perintendent, appointed  by  the  President  and  con- 
firmed by  the  Senate.  The  law  places  no  limit 
as  to  his  term  of  office,  which  is  therefore  subject 
to  the  pleasure  of  the  President.  !N'o  one  is  eligi- 
ble to  this  position  who  is  not  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  means  employed  by  the  Service  to  save 
life  and  property  from  shipwreck.  This  officer 
has  administrative  control  over  the  entire  serv- 
ice.    His  salary  is  $4000  per  year. 

An  Assistant  General  Superintendent  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  in 
absence  of  the  General  Superintendent  performs 
duties  of  the  same,  acting  as  chief  adviser  and 
assistant  at  all  other  times.  This  officer's  salary 
is  $2500  per  year.  The  general  headquarters  of 
the  Superintendent  of  the  Service  are  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  where  a  corps  of  clerks,  a  civil 
engineer,  a  topographer,  a  hydrographer  and  a 
draughtsman  assist  in  the  transaction  of  business. 

A  board  on  life-saving  appliances,  composed  of 
experts  obtained  from  the  Life-Saving  Service  and 
other  sources,  is  appointed,  which  examines  and 
reports  upon  the  devices  and  inventions  for  the 
improvement  of  life-saving  apparatus.  This  ren- 
ders the  Service  progressive  and  provides  it  with 
the  latest  and  most  effective  apparatus. 


The  next  ranking  officer  is  the  Inspector,  de- 
tailed from  the  revenue-cutter  service,  upon  re- 
quest and  recommendation  of  the  General  Super- 
intendent. His  headquarters  are  in  !J^ew  York 
city.  Under  him  are  assistant  inspectors, —  one 
for  each  district, —  whose  business  it  is  to  visit 
each  station  in  the  district  at  least  once  a  month, 
during  the  "  active  season."  This  assistant  in- 
spector is  to  examine  and  practice  the  station 
crews  and  make  the  ordinary  routine  of  inspec- 
tion, and  also  make  a  careful  examination  of  all 
persons  who  have  entered  the  Service  since  his 
last  visit,  reporting  to  the  Inspector  for  dismissal 
any  found  wanting.  In  case  of  a  shipwreck  where 
loss  of  life  occurs,  it  is  his  duty  to  carefully  in- 
vestigate all  the  circumstances,  and,  if  possible, 
obtain  the  cause  of  disaster,  reporting  to  the  In- 
spector; also,  whether  officers  or  employes  of  the 
Service  were  guilty  of  any  neglect  or  misde- 
meanor. 

Each  one  of  the  twelve  districts  into  which  the 
United  States  coasts  are  divided  is  controlled  by 
a  superintendent,  who  must  be  not  less  than 
twenty-five  nor  more  than  fifty-five  years  old  when 
appointed.  He  must  be  a  person  of  good  charac- 
ter, must  have  a  good  knowledge  of  business  af- 
fairs, and  be  able  to  read  and  write  English 
readily.  He  must  not  only  be  a  resident  of  the 
district  for  which  chosen,  but  must  also  be  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  the  line  of  coast  embraced 
within  its  limits;  and  understand  the  manage- 
ment of  lifeboats  and  other  life-saving  appliances. 
For  this  reason,  to  gain  the  appointment  each 
superintendent  must  pass  a  rigid  examination  as 
to  these  qualifications,  given  by  the  General  Su- 
perintendent and  Inspector.  Besides  being  dis- 
bursing officers  and  paymasters  for  their  respect- 
ive districts,  they  conduct  the  general  business  of 
the  district,  visit  each  station  at  least  once  a  quar- 
ter, to  pay  off  the  crews  and  provide  station 
needs.  They  make  requisition  on  the  General 
Superintendent    for   station   supplies,    apparatus, 


66 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


and  repairs,  and  also  look  after  the  interests  of 
the  Government  in  reference  to  dutiable  property 
wrecked  within  district  limits,  and  see  that  keep- 
ers of  stations  perform  their  duties  in  reference- 
to  this  and  all  matters  in  their  charge. 

The  salary  of  the  superintendent  varies  from 
$1000  to  $1800  per  year,  determined  by  the  extent 
of  duties  and  measure  of  responsibility. 

The  most  important  officer  in  the  entire  Service 
is  the  keeper  of  the  station,  who  has  control  of  all 
its  affairs.  For  this  reason  he  is.  selected  with 
the  greatest  care.  The  candidate  must  be  not  less 
than  twenty-one  nor  more  than  forty-five  years  of 
age,  a  person  of  good  character,  able-bodied,  and 
must  hold  a  certificate  of  physical  soundness  from 
a  surgeon  of  the  Marine  Hospital  Service.  He 
must  also  have  sufficient  education  to  transact  the 
business  of  the  station,  and  be  a  master  of  boat- 
craft  and  surfing.  He  is  generally  nominated  by 
the  district  superintendent  and  appointed  by  the 
General  Superintendent.  The  keeper  is  required 
to  reside  constantly  at  his  station ;  has  the  custody 
of  station  property  and  control  of  station  premises. 
He  is  captain  of  the  station  crew,  leads  them  and 
shares  their  perils  on  all  occasions  of  rescue,  di- 
recting all  operations  with  the  apparatus.  The 
keeper  is  guardian  of  all  wrecked  property  until 
relieved  by  owner  or  agent  of  same,  or  instructed 
by  superior  authority  as  to  its  disposition.  He  is 
also,  ex  officio,  inspector  of  customs,  under  direc- 
tion of  the  district  superintendent.  He  is  re- 
quired to  keep  a  log-book  or  daily  journal,  sending 
a  transcript  each  week  to  the  district  superintend- 
ent, who  sends  a  duplicate  to  the  General  Super- 
intendent at  Washington.  An  immediate  and 
complete  report  of  each  wreck  must  be  sent  by 
each  keeper  to  his  superintendent. 

A  keeper  who  lives  in  an  isolated  and  lonely 
place  is  permitted  to  hire  an  assistant  to  stay  with 
him  during  the  period  of  the  year  the  crew  are 
"off  duty,"  and  is  paid  the  maximum  salary  of 


$800  per  year.  The  customary  salary  paid  is 
$700  per  year. 

Keepers  of  houses  of  refuge  receive  $400  per 
year.  The  houses  of  refuge  are  simple  dwellings 
with  capacity  and  conveniences  for  the  residence 
of  a  good-sized  family,  and  sufficient  to  furnish 
temporary  shelter  for  as  many  as  are  likely  to 
need  it.  These  houses  are  situated  on  the  Florida 
coasts,  and  the  distance  between  them  averages 
twenty-six  miles;  guide-posts  are  placed  at  each 
mile,  indicating  direction  and  distance  to  nearest 
station.  Cots  and  sufficient  provision  to  keep 
twenty-five  persons  ten  days  are  supplied  each 
house  of  refuge.  No  apparatus  or  boats  (save  a 
small  galvanized  iron  boat  for  keeper)  are  pro- 
vided for  these  houses,  as  they  are  intended  to 
succor  rather  than  rescue  the  shipwrecked.  The 
houses  of  refuge  are  manned  generally  by  the 
keeper,  with  one  and  sometimes  two  attendants, 
but  no  crew  of  surfmen  is  maintained. 

The  stations  of  the  Service  usually  consist  of 
two-story  houses  arranged  as  follows :  On  first  floor 
a  boat-room,  a  mess-room,  a  keeper's  room,  and  a 
storeroom  where  the  life-saving  apparatus  is  kept, 
— which  will  later  be  discussed.  The  second  story 
generally  contains  two  and  frequently  four  addi- 
tional rooms,  one  a  sleeping-room  for  the  men,  an- 
other a  rescue-  and  storage-room ;  and  if  two  ad- 
ditional rooms,  one  is  a  rescue  or  spare  room  and 
the  other  a  kitchen.  Each  station-house  has  an  ob- 
servatory tower  or  lookout  and  a  sixty-foot  flag- 
staff. The  latter  is  used  in  signaling  vessels.  The 
roof  of  the  station-house  is  painted  a  dark-red 
color,  which  makes  it  distinguishable  a  long  way 
off-shore. 

The  floating  station  at  Louisville  is  a  house  of 
two  stories  surmounted  by  a  lookout,  and  is  usually 
moored  above  the  dam  which  spans  the  river,  at  a 
place  easily  accessible  to  boats.  It  can  be  towed 
wherever  necessity  requires.  In  1883-4,  the  time 
of  the  great  Ohio  floods,  it  rescued  800  persons, 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


67 


and  took  to  places  of  safety  and  supplied  food  and 
other  necessaries  to  more  than  10,000  others. 

Station  buildings  upon  exposed  coasts  are  built 
to  withstand  the  tempests  that  frequent  these 
coasts. 

Instances  are  on  record  where  storms  have  car- 
ried the  station-house  from  a  quarter  to  a  half-mile 
inland,  without  material  damage.  In  the  terrible 
storm  of  February  3,  1880,  which  lined  the  coast 
of  IsTew  Jersey  with  wrecks,  in  the  very  "  teeth  of 
the  storm"  three  station  crews,  at  dead  of  night, 
rescued  all  the  passengers  and  crews  of  four  ves- 
sels without  a  single  mishap.  When  we  learn  that 
their  beach  apparatus  was  set  up  and  worked  in 
almost  absolute  darkness,  the  lanterns  being  so 
thickly  covered  with  sleet  that  only  the  faintest 
glimmers  of  light  were  given  out,  too  dim  to  re- 
veal the  lines  and  implements  used,  we  know  that 
these  brave  men  must  understand  their  business 
thoroughly. 

To  more  efficiently  guard  the  coast  and  prevent 
shipwrecks  and  bring  quick  assistance  to  the  dis- 
tressed, a  careful  system  of  patrol  is  maintained. 
During  1900,  182  %vrecks  were  prevented  by  the 
night  patrol  with  his  red  Coston  handlight  signal. 

Gen.  Supt.  Kimball  says  that  the  Service  would 
be  made  much  more  effective  in  its  rescue  work  if 
all  captains  of  ships'  crews  were  taught  how  to  in- 
telligently cooperate  with  the  rescue  force. 

When  we  know  that  the  life-saving  appliances 
are  being  continually  improved,  and  that  the  work 
and  limits  of  the  Service  are  being  extended,  we 
can  indeed  be  thankful  for  its  protection  to  life  and 
property.  To  gain  a  conception  of  the  scope  of 
its  work,  and  to  show  how  our  Uncle  Sam  loves  his 
citizens  and  seeks  to  afford  the  greatest  protection 
to  their  shipping  along  his  shores,  permit  me  to 
say  that  he  maintains  193  stations  on  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts,  56  on  the  Great  Lakes,  15  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  one  at  the  falls  of  the  Ohio, 
Louisville,  Ky.  He  maintains  these  stations  at  an 
average  annual  expense  of  $4000  per  station,  while 


the  saving  to  the  nation  each  year  approximates 
six  and  one-half  times  the  total  cost,  and  over 
4000  lives. 

May  we  teach  our  scholars  that  the  men  in  this 
service  are  heroes,  whose  courage  and  devotion  to 
duty  all  Americans  should  know  and  appreciate. 

QUESTION    SUMMARY. 

1.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  modern  life-saving  or- 
ganizations ? 

2.  What  life-saving  appliances  did  the  United  States 
have  prior  to  1850  ? 

3.  When  was  the  National  Life-Saving  Service  of  to-day 
established  ? 

4.  Where  were  the  first  stations  located  ? 

5.  How  many  miles  of  lake  and  seacoasts  now  under 
this  Service  ? 

6.  Into  how  many  districts  are  these  coasts  divided  ? 

7.  Who  is  the  highest  officer  of  the  Service,  and  how 
selected  ? 

8.  What  are  his  duties,  and  where  are  his  headquarters  ? 

9.  Explain  the  work  of  the  board  on  life-saving  appli- 
ances. 

10.  Explain  the  work  of  the  inspector. 

11.  Where  are  his  headquarters? 

12.  Who  alone  are  eligible  to  the  superintendency  of  a 
district? 

13.  Give  the  duties  of  this  officer. 

14.  Who  is  the  most  important  of  the  entire  service  ? 
Why? 

15.  What  qualifications  are  required  of  this  officer  ? 

16.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  station-keeper? 

17.  What  is  the  station  log-book? 

18.  AVhat  are  houses  of  refuge,  and  where  are  they  lo- 
cated ? 

19.  What  supplies  and  equipment  are  kept  by  the  keep- 
ers of  these  houses  ? 

20.  Describe  a  station-house  in  the  Life-Saving  Service. 

21.  What  can  you  say  of  the  Louisville  station? 

22.  What  can  you  say  of  station  buildings  on  exposed 
coasts  ? 

23.  What  incident  in   the  storm  of    1880  shows  the 
efficient  work  of  the  U.  S.  Life  Saving  Service? 

24.  Explain  the  work  of  the  coast  night  patrol. 

25.  What  facts    show  the    extent  and  value  of   the 
Service  ? 


68 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTEK  XI. 
Great   Canals    of   Commerce. 

The  first  canals  were  dug  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians and  Chaldeans,  for  irrigation  purposes. 

Seventeen  centuries  before  Christ  the  Chaldeans 
dug  the  Koyal  Canal  of  Babylon.  Later  Nebu- 
chadnezzar reopened  this  canal,  and  so  enlarged  it 
that  merchant  ships  could  sail  on  it;  and  six  cen- 
turies before  Christ  Herodotus  considered  it  one 
of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 

About  the  seventh  century  after  Christ  the  Im- 
perial Canal  of  China  was  constructed,  connecting 
the  Pei-Ho  with  the  Yang-tse,  the  boats  being 
raised  from  lower  to  higher  levels  by  means  of  in- 
clined planes  on  which  capstans  were  used. 

In  the  twelfth  century  canals  were  introduced  in 
the  ]!^etherlands,  where  they  have  become  the  prin- 
cipal means  of  internal  communication. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  two  Italian  engineers 
invented  the  modern  lift-lock.  This  opened  a  new 
era  in  canal-building,  and  to-day  nearly  every 
country  of  commercial  importance  has  increased  its 
natural  water-ways  or  enhanced  their  commercial 
value  by  artificial  means. 

Many  cities,  like  Amsterdam,  Manchester  and 
New  York,  have  by  ship  canals  increased  their  com- 
mercial value  as  ports. 

Amsterdam  in  the  early  part  of  the  last  cen- 
tury dug  a  canal  51  miles  long,  connecting  the  river 
with  the  North  Sea;  and  near  the  close  of  the 
century  Manchester  dug  her  ship  canal  from  tide- 
water, 35^  miles  away,  so  that  ships  of  6000  tons 
burden  could  steam  directly  to  the  city. 

In  1895  New  York  dug  her  canal  connecting  the 
Hudson  river  with  Long  Island  Sound  via  Spuyten 
Duyvil  creek  and  Harlem  river. 

Erom  their  commercial  importance,  the  follow- 
ing canals  deserve  special  mention: 

1.  The  Erie  Canal. — This  canal  is  a  memorial  to 
the  untiring  energy  of  Governor  DeWitt  Clinton, 
of  New  York.    The  canal  was  begun  in  1817,  and 


was  finished  in  eight  years.  The  canal  was  built 
in  sections,  each  as  level  as  possible,  and  as  the 
land  is  higher  in  some  places  than  it  is  in  others, 
these  sections  were  connected  by  locks  that  raise  or 
lower  the  boats  as  may  be  required.  From  Brigh- 
ton to  Lockport  is  a  continuous  level  sixty-five 
miles  long.  At  Lockport  are  five  large  double 
locks  that  have  a  total  lift  of  56  feet.  These  locks 
gave  the  name  to  the  large  commercial  center  the 
canal  has  built  up  here,  and  are  examples  of  en- 
gineering skill. 

From  Lockport  to  Buffalo  is  a  section-level  31 
miles  long.  The  original  canal  as  dug  was  363 
miles  long,  extending  from  Buffalo  to  Troy  and 
Albany,  on  the  Hudson  river.  The  transfer  from 
one  section-level  to  another  is  made  by  means  of 
locks.  There  are  seventy-two  of  these  locks.  A 
boat  going  west  enters  the  lock  and  is  shut  in. 
Water  is  allowed  to  enter  until  the  lock  is  filled, 
which  raises  the  boat  to  the  higher  level.  A  boat 
coming  east  is  let  into  the  lock,  the  water  sent  out, 
and  the  boat  brought  down  to  the  lower  level,  when 
it  continues  its  journey. 

This  canal  reduced  freight  rates  from  Buffalo  to 
New  York  from  $100  to  $14  per  ton,  and  finally  to 
$3,  and  enabled  people  of  the  Northwest  to  ob- 
tain farming  tools,  clothing  and  other  articles  at 
one-eighth  of  their  former  prices.  It  stimulated 
settlements  along  the  canal,  and  made  New  York 
city  the  distributing  center  for  a  greatly  increased 
territory  of  trade. 

In  1862  this  canal  was  enlarged  to  70  feet  at  sur- 
face of  water,  with  an  average  depth  of  seven  feet. 

2.  The  Caledonian  Canal. — This  canal  was  being 
dug  at  the  same  time  the  Americans  were  con- 
structing the  Erie  Canal.  It  was  completed  in 
1822.  This  canal  crosses  Britain  from  the  Loch 
Linnhe  on  the  west,  through  the  Highlands  to  the 
Moray  Firth  on  the  east.  It  makes  use  of  four 
lakes  whose  combined  length  is  37  miles,  while 
the  canal  proper  is  23  miles  long,  122  feet  wide 
at  surface  of  water,  and  20  feet  deep;  making  the 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


total  distance  of  60  miles.  The  canal  has  its  slop- 
ing banks  protected  with  stone-work,  and  vessels 
of  6000  tons  burden  can  pass  through  the  canal. 

3.  The  Suez  Canal. —  This  canal  reaches  from 
Port  Said  to  Suez,  and  is  a  well-known  short  route 
to  India.  The  canal  was  planned  by  the  French 
engineer  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  and  the  construc- 
tion was  executed  by  a  company  under  his  direc- 
tion. As  first  dug,  the  canal  for  four-fifths  of  its 
length  was  327  feet  wide  at  surface  of  water  and 
26  feet  deep.  For  the  remainder  of  the  distance  it 
was  made  196  feet  wide  and  26  feet  deep.  The  im- 
mense traffic  of  recent  years  has  required  the  chan- 
nel to  be  both  widened  and  deepened.  The  canal 
proper  is  66  miles  long,  and  utilizes  21  miles  of 
lakes,  making  the  full  distance  87  miles. 

The  canal  cost  in  construction  $16,000,000,  is 
without  locks,  and  was  opened  for  commerce  in 
1869.  A  fresh-water  canal  from  the  Nile  near 
Cairo  parallels  the  salt-water  canal,  and,  being 
40  feet  wide  and  9  feet  deep,  is  used  for  both  irri- 
gation and  navigation.  The  Suez  Canal  reduces 
the  distance  from  London  to  Bombay  from  over 
11,000  miles  to  a  little  more  than  6000  miles, 
while  the  trade  of  the  world  passes  through  this 
channel  of  commerce. 

4.  The  Baltic  and  North  Sea  Canal. —  This 
canal  was  opened  in  June,  1891.  It  runs  from 
Holtman,  Bay  of  Kiel,  to  Brunsbiittel,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe  river.  It  is  61  miles  long,  27f 
feet  deep,  and  118  feet  wide.  This  canal  is  of  great 
strategic  value  to  Germany  and  of  great  commer- 
cial value  to  Prussia.  The  time  saved  steamers 
from  Kiel  to  Hamburg  is  two  and  one-half  days, 
and  the  largest  war  and  merchant  vessels  of  the 

■empire  can  pass  through  the  canal. 

The  Empire  paid  two-thirds  of  the  cost  of  con- 
struction and  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  the  remain- 
ing third.     The  total  cost  was  $7,128,000. 

5.  The  8auU  Ste.  Marie  Canal.*—  The  "  Soo  " 
canal,  as  this  is  popularly  called,  is  but  three  miles 

*  Pronounced  "  800  Saint  Marie." 


Egyptian  Beef  for  the  great  Ocean  Liners  anchored  in  the 
Suez  Canal,  Port  Said. 

long,  yet  its  importance  commercially  is  so  great, 
Americans  are  prone  to  think  it  the  greatest  canal 
in  the  world. 

This  canal  connects  Lake  Superior  with  Lake 
Huron,  avoiding  the  rapids  of  the  St.  Mary's  river, 
and  is  considered  the  water  gateway  of  the  North- 
west. Mr.  Fawcett,  in  a  descriptive  magazine 
article  on  the  "  Soo "  canal,  states  that  the  Suez 
canal  brought  the  wheat-fields  of  India  and  Aus- 
tralia closer  to  European  consumers,  but  the 
"  Soo  "  canal  so  cheapened  transportation  that  the 
granaries  of  our  nation  continue  to  act  as  store- 
houses from  which  a  large  part  of  the  commercial 
world  draws  its  food  supplies.  There  are  two  par- 
allel locks  in  this  canal,  the  largest  one  of  sufficient 
size  to  lock  four  lake  steamers  through  at  once. 
This  is  the  largest  lock  in  the  world,  and  cost  the 
Government  five  millions  of  dollars.  From  100  to 
150  steamers  pass  through  this  canal  every  day, 
and  its  commercial  value  is  seen  when  we  learn 
that  the  sinking  of  one  of  the  lake  steamers  in  the 
St.  Mary's  below  the  canal,  in  the  fall  of  1898, 
suspended  traffic  through  the  canal  for  a  few  days. 


70 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


and  for  this  five-days  delay,  vesselmen  estimate 
their  loss  to  have  been  at  least  one  million  dollars. 
The  annual  tonnage  passing  through  this  canal  in 
its  eight  months  of  navigation  is  greater  than  that 
■which  passes  through  the  Suez  Canal  or  enters 
either  the  port  of  London  or  IsTew  York  in  twelve 
months.  Government  reports  show  the  lake  craft 
to  be  as  great  as  the  whole  merchandising  fleet  of 
the  Atlantic,  Pacific  and  Gulf  coasts. 

Then  we  may  truthfully  say  that  the  Soo  Canal, 
at  least  1000  miles  from  tide-water,  is  the  greatest 
ship  canal  in  the  world. 

aUESTION    SUMMARY. 

1.  Who  first  used  canals,  and  for  what  purposes? 

2.  Discuss  the  Royal  Canal  of  Babylon. 

3.  When  was  the  Imperial  Canal  of  China  constructed? 

4.  What  rivers  does  it  connect  ? 

5.  How  did  the  early  Chinese  change  the  boats  from 
one  level  to  another  ? 

6.  AVhen  and  where  were  canals  first  introduced  into 
Europe  ? 

7.  When  was  the  lift-lock  invented,  and  how  did  it 
affect  canal  commerce  ? 

8.  Discuss  the  Amsterdam  ship  canal. 

9.  What  can  you  tell  of  the  ship  canal  at  Manchester? 

10.  Locate  the  Erie  Canal. 

11.  Give  some  facts  in  reference  to  its  construction. 

12.  Explain  the  action  of  a  lock  in  helping  a  vessel 
from  one  level  to  another. 

13.  What  city  is  noted  for  its  double  locks  ? 

14.  What  were  some  important  commercial  effects  of  the 
Erie  Canal  ? 

15.  What  Scottish  canal  was  being  dug  at  the  same 
time  the  Erie  Canal  was  in  process  of  construction? 

16.  Locate  this  canal. 

17.  Describe  this  canal. 

18.  Give  some  commercial  facts  about  this  canal. 

19.  Who  planned  and  constructed  the  Suez  Canal  ? 

20.  When  was  the  canal  completed  ? 

21.  Why  was  the  channel  of  the  canal  both  widened 
and  deepened  in  1886  ? 

22.  Why  has  this  canal  no  locks?    Ans.,  The  highest 


point  is  less  than  fifty  feet  above  sea-level,  and  does  not 
prevent  an  easy  current  flowing  through  the  canal. 

23.  Since  1887  the  canal  has  been  lighted  by  electric- 
ity, and  now  occupies  an  important  place  as  a  commer- 
cial highway.    Why? 

24.  What  does  it  cost  the  average  steamer  to  make  the 
passage,  and  what  time  does  it  take  ?  Ans.,  $500  in  gold, 
and  requires  24  hours  time  to  make  the  passage. 

25.  Locate  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  or  Kiel  Canal. 

26.  Why  is  this  canal  of  such  value  to  the  commerce  of 
northern  Europe  ? 

27.  What  are  the  dimensions  and  length  of  the  canal? 

28.  When  was  this  canal  dug? 

29.  What  argument  can  you  advance  for  Prussia's  pay- 
ing one-third  the  expense  of  this  canal,  while  the  Ger- 
man Empire  controls  it? 

30.  Locate  the  "  Soo  "  canal. 

31.  While  this  canal  avoids  the  dangerous  river  rapids, 
it  has  what  commercial  effect  on  transported  goods? 

32.  What  incident  reveals  the  great  importance  of  this 
canal  to  commerce  ? 

33.  What  can  you  say  of  the  locks  of  the  "  Soo  "  ? 

34.  Compare  the  "  Soo  "  commerce  with  the  Suez  com- 
merce. 

35.  Compare  "Soo"  commerce  with  London  or  New 
York  commerce. 

36.  What  fact  shows  the  comparative  value  of  the  mer- 
chant marine  of  the  Great  Lakes? 

37.  What  canal  is  now  being  contemplated  that  will  be 
of  greater  commercial  value  than  any  other  canal  of  the 
world,  121  of  the  170  miles  of  proposed  canal  being  a 
natural  waterway  by  river  and  lake?  Ans.,  The  Nica- 
ragua Canal. 

38.  What  do  you  know  of  the  Panama  Canal  ? 

39.  Name  the  most  important  ship  canals. 

40.  What  city  built  on  islands  uses  canals  for  streets  ? 
Ans.,  Venice. 

41.  Name  the  "Northern  Venice  "  of  Europe.  Why  so 
called  ? 

42.  What  States  in  our  Union  have  a  number  of  serv- 
iceable canals  to-day?  Ans.,  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois. 

43.  What  city,  at  considerable  expense,  dug  a  large 
drainage  canal  that  is  navigable  from  Lake  Michigan  to 
the  Des  Plaines  river,     ^ns., Chicago. 

44.  Has  this  proven  of  value  as  a  highway  of  commerce  ? 
Ans.,  No. 


PART  II. 

A  COMMERCIAL  TRIP  AROUND  THE  WORLD, 


(71) 


COl^TEKTS  OF  PAET  II. 


Ave. 

From  Boston  to  Buffalo 73 

A  Lake  Ride  from  Buffalo  to  Duluth 79 

From  the  Lakes  to  the  Pacific 88 

A  Trip  through  the  Pacific 96 

Across  the  Eastern  Continent 122 

A  Winter  Voyage  Across  the  Atlantic 135 


172.) 


South  Terminal  Station,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 


A   COMMERCIAL   TRIP   AROUND   THE   WORLD. 


From  Boston  to  Buffalo. 

We  will  take  a  trip  and  try  to  gain  a  conception 
of  the  commercial  world. 

We  start  from  historic  Boston,  the  metropolis 
of  !N^ew  England.  Here  we  see  Old  South  Church, 
Faneuil  Hall,  Bunker  Hill  Monument,  and  old 
North  Church,  from  whose  belfry  gleamed  the  sig- 
nal-lights that  sent  Paul  Revere  on  his  famous 
ride.  We  go  down  to  the  harbor.  We  pass  the 
navy  yard,  a  place  of  special  interest,  since  here 
are  stationed  "  Old  Ironsides,"  and  some  of  the 
vessels  which  gave  such  a  good  account  of  them- 
selves in  the  late  war  with  Spain.  Before  us  now 
lies  the  beautiful  harbor,  with  its  tinted  waves  roll- 
ing in  one  mad  frolic  to  our  very  feet.  The  Gov- 
ernment has  just  recently  authorized  the  expendi- 
ture of  $8,000,000  to  be  used  in  widening  and  deep- 
ening the  channel  for  shipping.  Here  are  merchant 
vessels  for  thirteen  international  lines.  They  ex- 
port provisions  (including  animals),  breadstuff s, 
cotton  manufactures,  leather  manufactures,  and 
iron  and  steel  manufactures,  in  order  named. 
They  import  wool  and  manufactures,  fibers,  sugar. 


hides  and  skins,  cotton  and  manufactures,  iron  and 
steel  manufactures,  and  leather,  in  order  named. 
The  total  foreign  tonnage  in  1900  was  4^  mill- 
ion tons.  The  coast  trade  of  Boston  is  greater 
than  that  of  any  other  city  of  the  United  States. 
The  total  coast  tonnage  in  and  out  for  Boston  in 
1900  was  16^  million  tons,  while  New  York,  the 
next  largest,  had  14^  million  tons.  The  total  for- 
eign commerce  carried  on  at  the  port  of  Boston  is 
now  over  192  million  dollars,  making  it  the  second 
port  of  commerce  in  our  nation.  Its  water  com- 
merce has  made  it  the  terminal  of  the  trunk  lines 
of  the  North  Atlantic  States.  This  has  caused 
Boston  to  be  a  channel  for  a  very  heavy  commerce, 
reaching  from  Chicago,  Illinois,  to  Portland, 
Maine.  Boston  now  leads  all  ports  in  the  shipment 
of  live  cattle.  The  centering  of  so  many  railroads 
in  Boston  has  led  to  the  erection  of  two  very  large 
union  depots.  The  one  known  as  the  South  Ter- 
minal Station  is  one  of  the  largest  railroad  stations 
in  the  world.  The  station  has  a  total  front  of  3100 
feet.  It  is  fitted  up  with  all  modern  conveniences, 
including  apparatus  for  heating,  lighting,  ice-mak- 


(73) 


74 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


ing,  air-compressing,  fire-protection  service,  pump- 
ing-plant  for  disposing  of  water  whicli  may  find 
its  way  into  portions  of  the  property  situated  be- 
low tide-water;  and  besides  these,  centrifugal 
pumps  pump  away  any  possible  sewage  and  storm- 
water,  which,  owing  to  the  suburban  tracks,  would 
be  carried  to  a  lower  level.  The  storm-water  of 
melting  ice  and  snow  from  the  fourteen  acres  of 
roofs  of  this  great  station  are  carried  away  by 
large  conductors,  special  provision  being  made  to 
keep  them  constantly  open  by  suitable  hot-water 
and  steam  supply. 

To  prevent  the  basements  from  dampness  and 
possible  leakage  from  tide-water,  a  coffer  dam  was 
built,  at  an  expense  of  $75,000,  and  it  has  effect- 
ually done  its  work.  Then,,  too,  the  lower  floor  is 
underlaid  with  ten  layers  of  tarred  paper,  swabbed 
together  with  hot  coal-tar  pitch  on  a  concrete  base. 
The  building  covers  13  acres,  has  32  terminal 
tracks,  aggregating  15  miles  —  4  miles  of  this 
being  under  roof.  Nearly  T50  trains  arrive  at  and 
leave  this  station  daily.  The  station  is  lighted  by 
235  arc  and  6000  incandescent  lights,  and  has  25 
electric  elevators,  affording  easy  and  ready  transit 
from  floor  to  floor. 

We  purchase  a  ticket  to  Buffalo,  and  enter  a 
Boston  &  Albany  train  that  is  scheduled  to  leave 
this  station  at  2  p.  m..  Eastern  standard  time,  June 
28th.  We  soon  find  ourselves  under  way,  on  a 
road  80  well  ballasted  that  there  is  no  jar.  Al- 
though we  are  moving  at  the  rate  of  forty  miles  an 
hour,  there  is  absolutely  no  dust,  for  the  track  is 
thoroughly  sprinkled  with  oil ;  so  no  dust  is  raised 
by  the  rapid  motion  of  the  train. 

Our  first  stop  is  at  Worcester,  44  miles  out  from 
Boston.  This  city  is  the  second  city  in  Massachu- 
setts ;  is  a  great  manufacturing  and  railroad  center. 
Its  wire  and  iron  goods,  boots  and  shoes  and  Clark 
University  have  made  Worcester  famous.  We 
passed  23  villages  and  towns  in  coming  these  forty 
miles,  which  shows  us  how  thickly  populated  this 
State  is.     Each  village  has  manufacturing  plants 


of  some  kind.  Probably  the  most  noted  one  is 
Waltham,  near  Boston,  just  off  to  the  right  from 
the  B.  &  A.  road.  Here  are  the  works  of  the 
American  Watch  Co.,  employing  2400  workmen 
and  turning  out  2100  completed  watches  daily. 

As  we  fly  on  our  way  westward  we  seem  to  see 
factory  chimneys  on  every  hand,  which  convinces 
us  that  Massachusetts  is  surely  given  the  head  of 
the  column  in  the  list  of  manufacturing  States 
of  our  Union. 

At  4:30  our  train  pulls  into  the  Springfield 
station.  Here  is  the  home  of  the  Springfield  rifle^ 
the  seat  of  the  U.  S.  Armory,  where  guns  for  army 
and  navy  are  made.  It  is  the  center  of  large  car 
and  bicycle  plants,  as  well  as  jewelry  and  cutlery 
industries.  We  now  cross  the  Connecticut  river, 
and  go  whirling  westward.  We  notice  the  preva- 
lence of  the  !N"ew  England  hills,  and  ask  our  seat- 
mate  about  it.  He  informs  us  that  we  are  nearing 
the  Hoosac  range  of  mountains.  "Will  we  pass 
through  the  famous  tunnel?"  we  ask.  "!N"o,"  he 
replies;  "that  is  on  the  Eitchburg  Route,  that 
runs  through  l^orth  Adams,  about  twenty-five 
miles  north  of  Pittsfield,  the  town  that  is  our  next 
stop."  Then  we  ask  our  Massachusetts  friend 
about  the  Hoosac  tunnel,  and  he  informs  us  that 
this  tunnel  was  first  proposed  in  1819,  to  be  used 
as  a  canal  tunnel  through  Elorida  mountain  for  a 
proposed  Hudson  river  and  Boston  canal.  In  1825 
a  commission  selected  by  the  Massachusetts  Legis- 
lature chose  the  line  via  Eitchburg  and  the  Miller 
and  Deerfield  rivers,  with  this  projected  tunnel 
through  the  Hoosac  range.  Steam  roads  began 
now  to  attract  attention,  and  the  canal  plan  was 
later  supplanted  by  a  plan  for  a  railroad.  The 
tunnel  was  completed  in  1873,  and  regular  trains 
were  started  through  the  tunnel  in  1876.  The 
tunnel  is  26  feet  wide  and  from  22  to  26  feet  high, 
giving  ample  room  for  the  double  tracks  that  run 
through  the  tunnel.  The  entrances  to  the  tunnel 
are  granite  facades,  and  these  reveal  the  superior 
workmanship    throughout    the    entire    structure. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


75 


The  central  ventilating  shaft  is  a  little  west  of  the 
middle  of  the  tunnel.  It  is  15  x  27  feet,  and  ex- 
tends from  the  top  of  the  tunnel  bore  to  the  sum- 
mit of  the  mountain  — 1028  feet.  The  west  shaft 
is  2400  feet  from  the  west  entrance,  and  is  318  feet 
to  the  surface  of  slope.  The  tunnel  is  lighted 
by  1250  incandescent  electric  lights.  Thus  we 
see  the  lighting  and  ventilating  of  this  famous 
tunnel,  four  and  three-fourths  miles  long,  is  nearly 
perfect.  The  tunnel  has  cost  its  owners  20^  mill- 
ions of  dollars ;  part  of  this  expense  has  been  borne 
by  the  State  of  Massachusetts. 

The  B.  &  A.  road  now  follows  the  valley  of  a 
small  tributary  stream  of  the  Connecticut  river 
until  it  reaches  the  Berkshire  Hills,  a  part  of  the 
Hoosac  range  made  famous  by  Whittier's  "  Smack 
in  School."  From  the  summit  grade  to  Pittsfield 
is  a  most  picturesque  and  delightful  scenery,  and 
we  can  now  understand  the  great  advantages  of 
I^ew  England  life,  hills,  and  water-power. 

At  6 :08  our  train  makes  its  third  stop,  and  we 
are  in  Pittsfield,  151  miles  from  Boston,  and  but 
nine  miles  from  the  "York  State"  line.  This 
city  was  incorporated  as  a  shire  town  of  Berkshire 
county  in  1761,  and  was  named  after  William  Pitt. 
It  has  a  beautiful  park  in  the  very  heart  of  the  city. 
In  the  center  of  this  park  stands  a  handsome  mon- 
ument in  memory  of  Pittsfield  citizens  who  fell 
in  the  Civil  War.  This  city  has  extensive  manu- 
factories in  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  paper,  silk, 
and  machinery. 

We  now  speed  onward,  and  at  7 :30  p.  m.  reach 
the  capital  of  the  Empire  State  —  Albany,  200 
miles  west  of  Boston  and  140  miles  north  of  New 
York  city.  Our  train  was  the  Special  Express, 
which  stops  only  at  end  of  divisions  and  makes  an 
average  of  forty  miles  an  hour.  There  are  66  vil- 
lages, towns  or  cities  from  Boston  to  Albany,  and 
39  from  Albany  to  Ifew  York,  which  gives  one  an 
idea  of  the  density  of  population  in  this,  the  great 
manufacturing  region  of  the  nation.  Let  us  take 
one  manufacturing  plant  in  this  region,  employing 


2400  workmen.  Each  year  these  men  and  their 
families  consume  8750  barrels  of  flour,  60,000 
bushels  of  potatoes,  180,000  dozen  eggs,  1,000,000 
quarts  of  milk,  325,000  pounds  of  butter,  and 
1,000,000  pounds  of  meat,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
sugar,  coffee  and  tea  used.  Since  they  must  also 
buy  clothing,  shoes,  etc.,  this  one  factory,  by  fur- 
nishing the  money  for  all  these  purchases,  helps  to 
support  farmers,  storekeepers,  other  factories,  gives 
railroads  freight  to  haul,  and  renders  commercial 
assistance  to  very  many  neighbors.  Thus  we  see 
manufacturing  andf  mining  Xew  England  calls 
upon  the  agricultural  and  cattle-raising  central 
States  for  food  and  meat  supplies,  and  hence  the 
great  east-and-west  trunk  lines  of  traffic,  which 
extend  the  facilities  for  commerce  of  both  regions. 

We  are  now  in  what  Is  known  as  the  "Albany 
Gateway,"  through  which  passes  the  nation's  com- 
merce via  the  Xew  York  Central  Railroad,  the  Erie 
Canal,  and  the  historic  Hudson.  Besides  its  im- 
portant location  commercially,  the  facts  that  it  is 
the  capital  of  New  York,  the  central  city  of  an 
agTicultural  and  dairy  country,  and  the  home  of 
many  manufacturing  plants,  tend  to  make  Albany 
an  important  business  town. 

We  here  take  the  Lake  Shore  Express,  one  of 
the  fast  train,  on  the  only  four-track  railway  in 
the  world  —  the  New  York  Central.  Two  tracks 
are  used  for  freight  traffic  and  two  tracks  for  pas- 
senger traffic  to  and  from  New  York,  its  terminal 
point.  The  regular  schedule  for  this  fast  train  is 
fifty-five  miles  per  hour,  and  yet  we  can  scarcely 
realize  that  we  are  moving.  We  place  a  glass  of 
water  on  the  window-ledge,  and  although  the  glass 
is  filled  to  the  brim  we  cannot  observe  the  spilling 
of  a  drop.  We  find  that  the  "click"  in  passing 
from  rail  to  rail  is  not  heard,  and  learn  that  the 
"continuous  rail"  that  is  used  over  the  10,000 
miles  of  this  system  entirely  removes  this  unpleas- 
ant sound.  But  look !  we  are  now  flying  through 
one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  the  State  —  Schenectady, 
a  village  that  was  sacked  and  burned  by  the  In- 


/ 


76 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


"Rounding  the  Nose,"  New  York  Central  Railroad,  Mohawk 
Valley,  New  York. 


dians  and  its  inhabitants  massacred  in  a  midnight 
attack  in  1690.  To-daj  it  is  a  most  interesting 
place.  Here  are  located  the  Schenectady  Locomo- 
tive Works,  the  second  largest  locomotive  works  in 
the  vs^orld,  employing  2650  men.  Here  also  we 
find  the  General  Electric  Company,  which  is  one 
of  the  greatest  manufacturers  of  electric  appliances 
in  the  world.  It  employs  7200  men  and  its  weekly 
pay-roll  exceeds  $80,000.  Besides  these  two  great 
plants  are  numerous  other  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, that  make  this  city  a  very  busy  place. 

We  are  now  on  one  of  our  nation's  greatest  ar- 
teries of  commerce,  that  traverses  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  valleys  in  our  nation.  Dr.  Talmage,  a 
world-traveler,  says,  "  The  most  beautiful  sight  I 
ever  witnessed  was  along  the  Mohawk  Valley." 

Our  next  stop  is  at  Utica,  95  miles  west  of  Al- 
bany. This  city  is  situated  at  the  most  favored 
spot  in  the  Mohawk  Valley,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Erie  and  Chenango  canals,  and  is  a  great  railroad 
center.  Its  manufacturing  plants  annually  turn 
out  more  than  ten  million  dollars'  worth,  and  thou- 
sands of  pounds  of  New  York  cream  cheese  are 
sent  from  its  agricultural  district.  The  city  was 
developed  by  the  Erie  Canal,  and  within  the  busi- 


ness part  of  the  city  is  the  site  of  old  Eort  Schuyler 
of  Revolutionary  fame. 

We  are  now  entering  the  great  lake  and  fruit 
region  of  "  York  State."  The  importance  of  the 
farms  in  this  region  leads  to  the  study  of  the  State's 
farm  products,  and  we  find  that  Illinois  is  the  only 
State  that  surpasses  K^ew  York  in  the  value  of  her 
farm  products,  while  this  State  ranks  first  in  buck- 
wheat, hops,  milk,  butter,  and  cheese. 

As  we  leave  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk  for 
the  "  Lake  Divide,"  we  decide  that  this  view  — 
"  rounding  the  nose  in  the  Mohawk  Valley  "  — is 
the  most  striking  of  the  many  charming  views  that 
the  bright  moonlight  of  the  evening  has  revealed 
to  us.  After  an  hour's  delightful  ride  through 
this  rich  farming  region  we  reach  our  second 
stop  —  Syracuse,  almost  half-way  between  Albany 
and  Buffalo.  This  city  is  on  a  creek  of  the  same 
name,  at  the  head  of  Onondaga  lake.  Here  is  lo- 
cated the  State  armory,  and  just  outside  the  cor- 
poration stands  the  State  School  for  the  Feeble- 
Minded, —  a  beautiful  structure  in  the  Italian 
style  of  architecture.  Syracuse  is  a  great  railroad 
center,  with  ten  important  railroads.  The  Erie 
Canal  passes  through  the  city,  and  has  been  an  im- 
portant factor  in  its  growth.  Syracuse  is  knowTi 
far  and  wide  for  its  salt.  The  salt  springs  were 
first  visited  by  the  Jesuits  in  1787,  when  a  white 
settlement  was  established  and  began  the  manu- 
facture of  salt.  This  is  now  one  of  the  lesser  in- 
dustries of  the  city,  as  the  city  turns  out  over  25 
million  dollars'  worth  of  manufactured  articles 
annually.  Very  extensive  iron  and  steel  works, 
sash,  door,  blind,  table  and  other  furniture  fac- 
tories, factories  of  musical  instruments,  glass, 
matches,  agricultural  implements,  ready-made 
clothing,  are  seen  in  this  city  of  over  100,000 
population. 

As  our  train  continues  its  westward  journey  we 
are  impressed  with  the  train  after  train  of  heavy 
freight  we  see  traveling  eastward.  After  a  sud- 
den start  caused  by  the  quick  passage  of  an  east- 


\ 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


77 


bound  fljer,  we  venture  to  question  the  nearest 
neighbor  about  the  freight  traffic  of  the  New  York 
Central.  This  man,  affable  and  courteous,  was  an 
early  settler.  He  told  us  that  he  lived  in  this  re- 
gion when  it  took  a  week  to  travel  from  Albany  to 
Buffalo.  He  has  seen  the  development  of  this 
road  we  are  riding  on,  from  one  track  to  the 
six  parallel  tracks  that  now  stretch  from  Albany 
to  Buffalo.  Said  he :  "  The  Erie  Canal  w^as  a 
great  thing  for  us  and  for  the  State,  and  to-day  it 
transports  annually  three  and  one-half  million  tons 
of  freight.  But  it  has  several  competitors  in  the 
87  railroads  that  are  now  in  York  State,  some  five 
or  six  being  active  competitors  of  the  canal  for 
Buffalo  freight."  "  To-day  it  is  no  uncommon 
sight  to  see  a  N'ew  York  Central  freight  engine 
pull  75  grain  cars,  each  holding  1000  bushels,  ag- 
gregating the  average  product  of  3750  acres  of 
wheat.  That  train  that  we  are  now  passing  is  a 
long  one,  and  probably  has  85  to  90  cars  of  wheat." 
"  During  the  busy  season  our  folks  have  counted 
from  75  to  100  daily  trains  of  through  freight.  I 
am  told  that  the  freight  carried  over  those  four 
tracks  yonder  amounts  to  25^  million  tons  in  a 
year."  "  The  strangest  thing  about  the  whole 
business,"  said  the  K'ew- Yorker,  "  is  that  the  New 
York  Central  now  carries  a  bushel  of  oats  from 
Buffalo  to  New  York  (450  miles)  as  cheaply  as 
Uncle  Sam  carries  a  letter  between  the  same  points. 
This,  I  am  told,  includes  Buffalo  elevator  and 
New  York  lighterage  charges." 

Thanking  our  New  York  friend  for  his  kindness, 
we  now  studied  the  landscape,  which  was  a  con- 
stantly changing  panorama,  with  villages,  green 
fields,  dark  woods,  and  silvery  water  beautifully 
intermingled. 

At  1 :15  A.  M.  we  reach  Rochester,  the  "  Flower 
City  "  of  our  nation.  This  city  clearly  illustrates 
the  effect  of  commercial  connection  w4th  the  world 
of  commerce.  In  1822  this  city  is  said  to  have 
been  a  village  of  half  a  hundred:  through  its 
transportation  facilities  it  has  grown  to  be  a  city 


of  170,000.  Rochester  is  situated  in  the  rich  Gen- 
esee valley,  and  lies  on  both  banks  of  the  Genesee 
river.  Within  the  city  are  three  falls,  one  being 
96  feet  and  affords  fine  water-power.  Before  the 
development  of  the  great  wheat  region  of  the  North- 
west, this  was  the  "  Flour  City "  of  the  nation. 
Although  it  still  has  17  flourishing  flouring-mills, 
it  has  passed  the  sobriquet  on  to  its  big  successor 
of  the  Northwest.  Here  we  see  the  fine  aqueduct 
that  conveys  the  water  of  the  Erie  Canal  over  the 
river.  This  aqueduct  is  848  feet  long,  45  feet 
wide,  and  consists  of  10  arches.  Here  originated 
the  kodak  camera,  and  $5,000,000  is  now  invested 
in  the  kodak  business  at  this  point.  Rochester 
has  a  magnificent  system  of  water-works,  the  Holly 
system,  that  pumps  the  water  for  city  use  through 
262  miles  of  mains.  Here  are  located  the  largest 
carriage-works  in  the  United  States,  besides  more 
than  a  thousand  other  manufacturing  plants,  turn- 
ing out  an  annual  product  valued  at  more  than  QQ 
millions  of  dollars.  But  the  great  industry  is  the 
flower  industry,  hundreds  of  acres  surrounding 
the  town-site  being  entirely  given  over  to  the  rais- 
ing of  flowers. 

The  Rochester  University  and  a  theological  sem- 
inary were  established  in  1850,  and  have  grown  to 
be  strong  and  important  educational  attractions  for 
the  town.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  city  is  largely 
due  to  its  immense  water-power,  the  facilities  for 
transportation,  and  the  remarkable  fertility  of  the 
surrounding  country,  being  but  seven  miles  from 
Lake  Ontario  and  in  the  great  vine  and  nursery 
region  of  New  York. 

We  now  leave  the  canal,  our  almost  constant 
companion  from  Albany,  and,  turning  southwest, 
have  a  delightful  run  across  the  richest  farming 
region  of  the  State.  We  reach  the  city  of  Pan- 
American  fame  at  3 :10  a.  m.  Eastern  standard 
time.  We  have  been  but  seven  hours,  including  all 
stops,  in  traveling  from  Albany  to  Buffalo,  a  dis- 
tance of  300  miles.  September  14,  1891,  the  Em- 
pire State  Express,  drawn  by  the  famous  locomo- 


78 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


tive  ISTo.  999,  made  an  experimental  run  from  I^ew 
York  to  Buffalo,  making  a  4:36^-mile  run  in  425^ 
minutes  —  the  fastest  time  on  record.  This  ex- 
press, the  pride  of  all  Isevf  York,  makes  its  regu- 
lar daily  run  between  these  cities  at  an  average 
schedule  speed  of  53-|  miles  per  hour,  including 
four  stops,  two  of  them  to  change  engines,  and 
twenty-eight  slow-downs  through  incorporated 
cities.  The  regular  schedule  time  on  parts  of  the 
line  is  64.8  miles  per  hour.  (See  cuts  of  the  first 
steam  railway  train  in  the  State,  and  the  "  Empire 
State  Express,"  the  fastest  regular  train  in  the 
world,  on  page  27.) 

Let  us  spend  a  day  at  the  Pan-American  Exposi- 
tion and  Xiagara  Falls,  before  we  take  our  lake 
ride  to  Duluth. 


We  entered  Buffalo  during  the  period  of  the 
Pan-American  Exposition,  which  was  destined  to 
bring  the  three  Americas  into  closer  social  and 
commercial  relations,  and  thus  promote  the  well- 
being  of  the  Western  continents. 

Buffalo,  in  the  vicinity  of  Niagara  Falls  and 
within  a  day's  communication  of  forty  million  peo- 
ple, convinced  Congress  and  the  nation  at  large 
that  she  offered  peculiar  advantages  for  the  expo- 
sition that  was  to  illustrate  the  development  of  the 
Western  World  in  the  arts,  industries,  manufac- 
tures, and  show  the  products  of  the  soil,  the  mine, 
and  the  sea.  The  "  Rainbow  City  "  is  a  memorial 
to  Buffalo  enterprise,  industry  and  capital.  The 
color  effects,  electrical  features  and  the  object  les- 
son of  the  vast  resources  of  North,  Central  and 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


79 


South  America  was  a  surprise  and  delight  to  the 
thousands  who  came  from  all  lands.  Many  were 
surprised  to  find  Buffalo  a  city  of  almost  400,000 
people,  the  home  of  more  than  3000  great  fac- 
tories—  one-twelfth  the  manufacturing  establish- 
ments of  the  nation.  Buffalo  was  seen  to  be  a  great 
railway  center,  with  her  26  lines  of  railway,  having 
a  passenger  service  of  250  trains  daily  and  an  im'- 
mense  freight  traffic.  It  is  the  fourth  commercial 
port  of  the  world,  uath  12  steamer  lines,  repre- 
senting an  annual  tonnage  of  five  million  tons,  be- 
ing the  eastern  gateway  of  the  great  lake  trade. 
It  is  reported  to  be  an  exchange  point  for  more 
trade  and  traffic  than  any  other  place  in  the 
world.  Buffalo  has  the  finest  system  of  interurban 
trolley  railways  of  any  American  city. 

The  great  i^orthwestern  elevator  is  the  largest  in 
the  world,  and  with  its  numerous  companions  re- 
ceives and  distributes  annually  200  million  bushels 
of  grain.  Besides  this,  Buffalo  handles  670  thou- 
sand tons  of  miscellaneous  freight  from  her  lake 
trade  alone. 

In  1886  citizens  of  Buffalo  offered  $100,000  to 
the  genius  who  would  devise  means  of  harnessing 
Niagara's  power.  Ten  years  afterward  this  en- 
gineering wonder  was  accomplished,  and  to-day 
the  factories  of  not  only  Buffalo  but  many  other 
cities  within  a  radius  of  profitable  transmission 
are  worked  by  the  mechanical  or  electric  energy 
from  the  small  fraction  of  Niagara's  power  that 
has  now  been  harnessed  —  450,000  horse-power. 
All  the  machinery  of  the  Pan-American  Exposi- 
tion, the  street-cars,  the  electric-lighting  system, 
the  scores  of  mills  and  hundreds  of  factories  of 
Buffalo  in  1901  were  supplied  their  energy  in 
units  of  5000  horse-power  each,  transmitted  over 
copper  cables  of  19  wires  each. 


A   Liake   Ride   from   Buffalo   to   Duluth. 

But,  wearied  of  sights  and  wonders,  we  see  the 
spacious  harbor  and  easily  select  the  pride  of  the 
lakes  —  the  steamer  "  Northwest."    This  is  the  one 


that  is  to  take  us  on  the  longest  lake  ride  in  the 
world,  and  we  therefore  study  it  with  interest  as 
we  ascend  the  gang-plank  and  proceed  on  deck. 
This  is  one  of  two  steamers  that  were  built  by  the 
Globe  Iron  Works  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  expressly 
for  passenger  service.  It  impresses  us  as  a  verita- 
ble floating  palace  as  we  stand  on  a  promenade  deck 
more  than  one-eighth  of  a  mile  long.  Through  the 
kindness  of  a  ship's  officer  we  gain  a  conception  of 
the  size  of  this  creation  of  steel.  "  The  Northwest 
is  386  feet  long,  44  feet  wide,  and  34  feet  deep," 
he  says.  "  Its  hull  is  built  of  steel  throughout,  the 
interior  being  especially  constructed  to  meet  the 
necessary  requirements  of  the  28  Belleville  patent 
water  tube  boilers  with  their  two  quadruple  ex- 
pansive 3500-horse-power  engines  which  are  placed 
amidship,  with  coal-bunkers  extending  longitudi- 
nally through  the  different  boiler  spaces,  capable 
of  holding  1000  tons  of  coal.  The  lower  deck  for- 
ward is  fitted  for  emigrant  passengers,  and  the 
after  deck  as  a  baggage-room  and  crew  quarters. 
Between  the  two,  amidship,  is  the  electric  engine 
and  dynamo-room,  120,000  feet  of  wire  being  used 
throughout  the  boat,  furnishing  fifteen  hundred 
sixteen-candle-power  lights  and  an  electric  signal- 
light  of  100,000  candle-power. 

"A  refrigerator  plant  is  also  used  on  the  steamer, 
cooling  all  compartments  carrying  perishable  pro- 
visions. The  plant  is  arranged  to  manufacture 
1000  pounds  of  ice  per  day  for  use  on  shipboard. 
On  the  main  deck  you  find  our  dining-room,  seat- 
ing 150  guests.  Please  observe  that  the  woodwork 
is  finished  in  white  mahogany,  and  that  the  furni- 
ture has  been  especially  designed  and  made  for  this 
boat.  Come  with  me  up  the  grand  staircase  to  the 
spar  deck  and  see  the  grand  saloon,  which  clearly 
illustrates  the  'rococo'  style  of  decorations  em- 
ployed throughout  the  boat.  On  the  hurricane 
deck  are  our  staterooms.  Those  forward  are  fur- 
nished with  full-sized  bedsteads  and  all  modern 
conveniences.  Here  we  have  accommodations  for 
544  passengers." 


80 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


"  "What  was  the  cost  of  this  steamer  ? "  we  ask. 
"  Over  one  and  one-half  millions  of  dollars,"  we  are 
told.  "  What  is  her  speed  ? "  "  Twenty  knots  an 
hour."  "  What  is  her  crew  ? "  "  One  hundred  and 
eighty-five  as  true  sailors  of  water  as  salts  from  the 
sea,"  answered  the  officer.  And  now  we  notice  that 
preparations  for  the  voyage  are  actively  in  prog- 
ress. Promptly  at  10:15  p.m.  we  move  out  from 
the  dock,  pass  the  tall  elevators,  and  with  our 
searchlight  lakeward  our  voyage  is  begun. 

As  we  pass  out  of  the  harbor  the  beautifully 
illuminated  electric  tower  on  the  Pan-American 
grounds  stands  out  boldly,  with  the  night  for  its 
background.  Its  flashlight,  more  than  400  feet 
from  the  ground,  illuminates  the  grounds,  and  its 
searchlight  is  the  great  "  magic  lantern  of  Wonder- 
land." That  tower  with  its  40,000  radiant  lights 
gave  the  name  "  Electric  City  "  to  the  Exposition 
grounds.  The  lights  of  the  city,  added  to  those 
used  at  the  Pan-American  grounds,  made  a  sum 
total  of  500,000,  the  power  for  their  illumination 
being  a  very  small  fraction  of  the  energy  of 
Niagara,  "  twenty  miles  away." 

As  we  gaze  upon,  that  beautiful  sight,  a  city  of 
stars,  with  playing  fountains  of  flashing  diamonds, 
we  are  reminded  of  Secretary  of  State  Hay's  apt 
remarks,  June  13th,  1901 :  "  Last  night  as  I  looked 
from  my  window  at  this  marvelous  creation  lined 
in  fire  upon  the  evening  sky,  and  to-day  as  I  have 
walked  through  the  courts  and  the  palaces  of  this 
incomparable  exhibition,  the  words  of  the  prophet 
have  been  constantly  in  my  mind :  '  Your  old  men 
shall  dream  dreams;  your  young  men  shall  see 
visions.'  It  was  noble  and  inspiring,  leading  to 
earnest  and  uplifting  labor.  This  ideal  of  the 
brotherhood  of  nations  of  the  Western  World  is  not 
a  growth  of  yesterday.  It  was  heralded  when  the 
country  was  young,  by  the  clarion  voice  of  Henry 
Clay;  it  was  cherished  by  Seward  and  Evarts, 
Douglas  and  Blaine.  Out  of  a  good  source  evil 
cannot  flow;  out  of  the  light  darkness  cannot  be 
born.    The  benignant  influences  that  shall  emanate 


from  this  festival  of  peace  shall  not  be  bounded  by 
oceans  nor  by  continents." 

The  175  miles  from  Buffalo  to  Cleveland  is 
measured  in  seven  hours.  We  pass  the  lighthouse, 
that  used  to  have  the  upper  and  lower  lights.  On 
siormy  nights,  unless  the  .lower  lights  were  burning 
ships  seeking  entrance  to  the  harbor  were  liable  to 
be  cast  upon  the  rocks  and  wrecked.  One  very 
stormy  night  the  lower  lights  went  out,  and  a  large 
steamer  was  wrecked.  That  incident  led  P.  P. 
Bliss  to  write  the  beautiful  song,  "  Let  the  Lower 
Lights  be  Burning."  We  observe  that  the  light- 
house has  been  cut  down,  and  has  no  upper  lights 
at  present.  We  pass  the  breakwater,  and  enter  a 
beautiful  harbor  inclosing  two  miles  of  water- 
front. Besides  the  lake  port,  Cleveland  has  the 
Cuyahoga  river  frontage  of  sixteen  miles,  five  of 
which  are  docked.  Here  is  located  the  largest  dry- 
dock  on  the  lakes,  built  in  1891.  It  rests  on  2000 
piles,  surrounded  by  a  five-foot  wall  of  puddle, 
costing  in  all  $200,000.  We  find  Cleveland  to  be 
the  leading  shipbuilding  city  of  our  nation,  second 
only  to  the  Scotch  city  of  Clyde,  the  most  exten- 
sive shipbuilder  in  the  world.  Her  lake  commerce 
exceeds  275,000  tons,  the  largest  single  item  being 
iron  ore. 

Here  is  the  home  of  the  Standard  Oil  Co.,  where 
until  recently  more  petroleum  was  refined  than  at 
any  other  place  in  the  commercial  world.  Cleve- 
land also  leads  the  world  in  sewing-machine  manu- 
facture, while  her  heavy  iron  castings,  bridges, 
trusses,  nails  and  tacks  are  well-known  articles  of 
trade.  Her  2500  manufactories  employ  more  than 
50,000  workmen.  Her  more  than  thirty  banks  are 
■so  economically  and  prudently  administered  that 
she  has  not  had  a  bank  failure  for  over  eighty  years. 

Her  Euclid  avenue  marks  the  highest  type  of 
beautiful  and  well-lawned  streets,  and  her  Garfield 
Memorial  is  the  observatory  of  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  cemeteries  of  the  nation,  as  well  as  the 
greatest  tribute  of  the  nation  to  a  beloved  though 
martyred  son  of  Ohio. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


81 


Moses  Cleveland,  in  July,  1796,  sailed  up  the 
lake-shore  to  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga  with  a 
company  of  forty-eight  men  and  two  women.  View- 
ing the  landscape  from  the  plateau  near  the  lake, 
Mr.  Cleveland  exclaimed,  "  This  is  destined  to  be 
the  site  of  a  ^eat  town  and  the  future  gateway  to 
the  great  West  and  South."  To-day  it  is  the  hand- 
somest of  all  the  lake  cities,  with  more  than  380,- 
000  people,  the  largest  city  in  the  Buckeye  State. 

Cargo  and  mail  exchanged,  we  leave  Cleveland 
harbor,  to  enter,  in  a  few  hours,  Lake  Erie's  most 
famous  summer  resort  —  Put-in  Bay.  This  marks 
a  group  of  small  islands  about  sixty  miles  north- 
west of  Cleveland ;  one  island  —  Put-in  Bay  — 
having  a  small  but  excellent  harbor.  Just  off  the 
northwest  corner  of  this  island  occurred  the  famous 
naval  battle  of  Lake  Erie,  where  Commodore  Oli- 
ver H.  Perry  met  the  British  fleet  in  1813,  and 
told  the  story  of  the  battle  in  the  laconic  message 
to  the  President,  "  We  have  met  the  enemy  and 
they  are  ours."  Some  of  the  brave  sailors  who  lost 
their  lives  in  the  great  battle,  sleep  beneath  the 
Napoleonic  willow  that  marks  their  grave  on  the 
northwest  plat  of  the  island. 

Now  we  are  "  at  sea  "  again,  and  with  large  ap- 
petites sit  down  to  luncheon  in  the  dining-room. 
Out  of  sight  of  land,  yet  in  the  middle  of  a  great 
continent.  Racing  through  the  waters  at  a  speed 
of  more  than  twenty-five  miles  an  hour,  yet  moving 
so  steadily  that  our  coffee  does  not  spill  nor  the 
lemon  custard  lose  its  form.  Words  cannot  de- 
scribe that  meal,  but  its  last  course  is  just  com- 
pleted when  "  land "  is  called,  and  on  reaching 
deck  we  find  our  ship  nearing  the  Canadian  shores 
at  the  extreme  western  end  of  the  lake.  "  What ! 
do  we  not  stop  at  Sandusky  or  Toledo  ? "  "  No,  we 
cannot  make  all  lake  cities  in  this  line,  which  is 
scheduled,  and  is  the  '  Fast  Flyer '  of  the  lakes," 
said  a  ship's  officer  in  passing.  Asking  him  about 
Toledo,  he  told  us  that  Toledo  had  one  of  the  best 
harbors  on  the  lakes.  It  does  the  greatest  business 
in  soft  coal  and  clover  seed  of  any  lake  city.    It  has 


large  manufacturing  industries,  while  the  "  Wool- 
son  Spice  Co."  is  a  household  word  all  over  the 
country.  Toledo  has  about  135,000  inhabitants, 
and  has  a  great  railroad  commerce. 

We  now  enter  the  Detroit  river  and  the  scenic 
part  of  our  route  begins,  for  from  the  lighthouse 
at  the  entrance  of  the  river  until  we  pass  Mackinac 
there  is  not  a  mile  that  we  do  not  want  to  "  kodak." 
Simultaneously,  Windsor  (Canada)  and  Detroit 
are  revealed  by  a  bend  in  the  river.  These  two 
cities  are  separated  only  by  the  river,  about  a  mile 
apart,  yet  commerce  is  subject  to  inspection  by 
Government  officials  that  pass  between  them,  for 
everything  must  "pass"  by  custom-house  regula- 
tion. 

We  reach  Detroit  (French  for  "  The  Strait")  at 
4  p.  M.,  and  spend  thirty  minutes  in  port.  While 
waiting  here  we  go  up  where  we  can  see  Belle 
Island,  whose  horticultural  beauty  shows  the  skill 
of  that  prince  of  landscape  gardeners,  Mr.  F.  L. 
Olmstead,  the  artist  who  planned  the  landscape 
vistas  of  the  Columbian  Fair  Grounds  at  Chicago 
in  1893.  We  next  take  a  "  bird's-eye  view  "  of  the 
only  marine  postoffice  in  the  world. 

The  tonnage  passing  Detroit  in  a  season  of  eight 
months  is  more  than  that  received  in  London,  the 
greatest  port  on  the  globe,  in  twelve  months.  It  is 
even  more  than  the  tonnage  received  at  New  York 
added  to  that  received  at  Liverpool.  Seven-eighths 
of  this  tonnage  is  carried  in  the  holds  of  "  through 
freighters"  that  do  not  touch  at  Detroit  either 
going  or  coming.  On  an  average  there  is  a  vessel 
passing  the  port  every  four  minutes  of  the  day  dur- 
ing the  lake  season  of  eight  months.  To  serve  these 
interests,  Uncle  Sam  has  established  a  marine  post- 
office. 

The  tug  "  Florence  B."  has  three  carriers,  who 
classify  by  lines  and  boats  the  mail  received  from 
the  clerks  of  the  marine  office.  These  carriers  work 
in  shifts  of  eight  hours  each,  and,  we  are  told,  so 
efficient  is  the  work  done  in  this  marine  office  that 
owners  of  steamers  rely  upon  it  for  delivery  of 


82 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


orders  to  their  captains  and  crews,  and  their  fami- 
lies are  brought  in  as  close  communication  as 
though  connected  by  the  best  of  railroad  mail  lines. 

The  home  of  Tecumseh,  an  historic  Indian  of 
"bellum"  days,  is  pointed  out  to  us  on  Peche 
Island.  Many  of  these  islands,  so  promiscuously 
scattered  through  the  river,  have  costly  houses 
where  wealthy  Detroiters  spend  their  summer 
hours. 

We  now  notice  that  Detroit  has  a  nine-mile 
water  frontage,  and  learn  that  her  lake  trade  ag- 
gregates 235,000  tons.  We  learn  that  Detroit  is 
a  most  delightful  city  of  nearly  290,000  people, 
but  do  not  have  time  to  go  "  up  town."  As  we  leave 
port  we  get  a  beautiful  panoramic  view  of  the  city. 
It  contains  many  costly  buildings,  and  has  such  a 
good  slope  that  its  drainage  is  well-nigh  perfect, 
and  with  a  large  river  having  a  good  current  wash- 
ing its  shores,  sanitation  is  remarkably  good. 

We  round  the  headland  of  Belle  Island,  where  is 
located  a  rugged  stone  Government  lighthouse,  and 
enter  the  waters  of  Lake  St.  Clair. 

Just  at  sunset  we  reach  the  Government  Ship 
Canal,  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Clair  river.  This 
canal  was  built  by  the  U.  S.  Government,  at  an 
expense  of  $650,000.  It  is  8200  feet  long,  200 
feet  wide,  and  16  feet  deep. 

As  the  electric  lights  are  turned  on,  let  us  go 
to  the  library  and  get  an  estimate  of  the  Great 
Lake  commerce.  We  find  there  the  Government 
treasury  reports  for  1900,  and  from  these  learn 
that  37  of  the  main  ports  show  an  aggregate  of 
1,266,000  tons  of  flour,  53,000,000  bushels  of 
wheat,  71,000,000  of  corn,  33,000,000  of  oats,  13,- 
000,000  bushels  of  barley  and  rye,  nearly  20,000,- 
000  tons  of  iron  ore,  2,000,000  tons  of  coal,  2,000,- 
000  feet  of  lumber,  with  three  and  one-half  million 
tons  of  unclassified  or  miscellaneous  trade.  The 
freighters  that  are  largely  used  for  this  work  are 
built  especially  for  the  lake  trade,  and  are  termed 
"  whalebacks  "  from  their  peculiar  shape  as  shown 
by  the  cut  on  page  87.     Many  of  these  "whale- 


backs  "  with  their  barges  haul  enough  doAvn-stream 
to  fill  thirty  freight  trains  of  thirty-five  cars  each. 

As  it  is  now  bright  moonlight,  we  again  seek 
the  deck,  to  study  that  most  peculiar  river,  not 
more  than  thirty  miles  long,  that  has  a  mightier 
commerce  than  the  great  "  Father  of  Waters,"  and 
yet  has  so  many  islands  that  each  one  of  us  is 
tempted  to  be  a  Robinson  Crusoe  and  have  an 
island  all  to  one's  self.  In  the  language  of  another, 
we  give  a  word-picture  of  these  remarkable  St. 
Clair  Flats:  "Passing  into  the  entrance  of  St. 
Clair  river,  which  is  a  vast  expanse  of  marshland 
and  clear  running  water,  full  of  deep  and  winding 
channels,  the  boat  enters  the  famous  St.  Clair  Flats. 
These  consist  of  thousands  of  acres  of  partly  sub- 
merged land,  the  curious  topography  of  which  is  a 
source  of  constant  wonder  and  delight  to  the  '  land- 
lubber.' Here  nature  has  blended  the  beauties  of 
river,  lake,  meadow-land  and  trees  into  a  picture 
of  indescribable  loveliness.  Instead  of  being  a 
stagnant  marsh,  full  of  green  slime  and  disagree- 
able odors,  the  waters  flow  clear  as  crystal  over  a 
sweet-smelling  meadow-land,  offering  a  paradise 
for  those  who  seek  piscatorial  delights,  or  love  to 
hear  the  musical  dip  of  the  oars  as  the  rowboat 
glides  over  the  streets  of  watery  blue  that  beautify 
this  lovely  little  Venice." 

As  we  approach  the  source  of  the  river  strait, 
w^e  see  the  tall  spires  and  silent  columns  of  Port 
Huron  on  the  one  side  and  quaint  old  Sarnia  on 
the  other.  Here  is  located  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able tunnels  yet  projected  —  the  St.  Clair  tunnel. 
For  a  number  of  years  ferry-boats  transported  the 
trains  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railroad  across  the 
river  at  this  point.  This  at  any  time  was  expen- 
sive, but  in  the  winter,  with  the  river  filled  with 
floating  ice  and  a  current  of  six  to  eight  miles  an 
hour,  it  becomes  ofttimes  a  hazardous  undertaking ; 
and  even  in  summer  the  time  consumed  in  crossing 
the  river  often  broke  the  train's  schedule.  Then 
it  was  decided  to  tunnel  under  the  river.  Opera- 
tions were  begun  simultaneously  on  both  sides  of 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


83 


the  river.  The  river  is  here  from  one-half  to  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  wide,  and  forty  feet  deep.  Fif- 
teen feet  was  allowed  for  a  "  roof,"  and  steel  tubes 
called  "  shields "  were  driven  through  the  blue 
clay  below  the  roof.  In  these  shields  the  men 
worked,  and  on  Au^ist  30th,  1890,  the  shields 
from  the  Canadian  shore  met  those  from  the 
United  States  shore  in  the  middle  of  the  river,  and 
the  chief  engineer  had  completed  his  remarkable 
work  in  one  year's  time,  surmounted  obstacles  that 
at  times  threatened  utter  defeat  of  his  plans,  when, 
in  spite  of  all  he  could  do,  it  seemed  as  if  the  tunnel 
would  be  flooded.  But  the  air-compressor  sent  in 
an  added  pressure  of  air,  often  running  up  to  forty 
pounds  per  square  inch,  holding  back  the  water 
until  the  shield  was  forced  through  the  gravel  or 
loose  sand  pocket  that  contained  the  water,  into 
the  blue  clay  beyond.  This  remarkable  tunnel  is 
6000  feet  long,  and  by  the  electric  light  its  night 
is  turned  to  day. 

We  pass  grim  Fort  Gratiot,  and  are  soon  steam- 
ing through  the  moonlit  waters  of  Lake  Huron. 
Next  to  shallow  Lake  Erie  (only  200  feet  deep), 
Huron  has  had  the  most  furious  storms  and 
wrecked  more  ships  than  any  other  of  the  Great 
Lakes.  It  is  over  800  feet  deep  and  more  than 
240  miles  long.  On  its  eastern  shore  is  a  wide 
extension  known  as  Georgian  bay,  and  half-way 
up  the  United  States  shore  is  Saginaw  bay,  fully 
15  miles  wide  and  40  miles  long,  with  Bay  City 
and  Saginaw  cities  at  its  head.  The  Saginaw 
river  is  18  miles  long,  and  on  its  banks  have  been 
produced  eighteen  billion  feet  of  pine  boards. 
While  in  the  middle  of  Lake  Huron  wdth  a  water- 
bounded  sky  we  saw  the  king  of  day  rise  up  from 
his  water  bath.  Oh,  that  sunrise  on  the  water! 
To  fully  comprehend  it,  one  must  see  it;  words 
prove  inadequate  for  a  just  conception. 

Just  before  noon  we  come  to  the  meeting  of  the 
ways,  the  boats  from  Lakes  Superior  and  Michi- 
gan entering  the  same  channel  on  their  way  to  the 
far  East.     We  deflect  from  the  direct  course  to 


touch  at  Mackinac  Island,  rich  with  early  conti- 
nental history,  alternating  as  it  did  between  In- 
dian, French,  English  and  American  possession. 
Here  La  Salle  hunted,  fished,  and  traded  wdth  the 
Indians ;  while  Joliet,  Marquette  and  Champlain 
legends  make  this  a  center  of  Northwestern  his- 
tory and  romance.  As  our  boat  stops  here  for  one 
hour  and  fifteen  minutes,  we  will  take  an  inven- 
tory of  some  few  of  the  many  delights,  to  the  globe- 
trotter, found  on  this  island  of  green  hills  and 
typical  French  landscape. 

Yonder,  commanding  the  rounded  harbor,  is 
that  old  fort,  now  crumbling  to  decay  wdth  the 
neglect  of  peace.  Here,  high  up  on  the  pine-clad 
bluff  that  commands  a  fine  lake  view,  is  the  Grand 
Hotel,  where  most  of  our  passengers  are  indulg- 
ing in  a  clam-bake.  Along  the  hillsides,  even  to 
the  very  '^vater's  edge,  we  see  scores  of  cozy  sum- 
mer cottages  built  for  comfort  rather  than  style, 
—  for  here,  is  the  Mecca  where  many  spend  their 
"halcyon  days"  in  rest  and  recuperation.  Up 
there  on  the  eastern  side  of  that  limestone  cliff  is 
Arched  Rock,  a  natural  bridge  145  feet  high  and 
40  feet  wide. 

Then  we  go  down  to  a  place  where  the  British 
landed  in  1812,  take  a  peep  at  the  Fairy  Arch, 
Devil's  Kitchen,  Lover's  Leap,  Chimney  Rock, 
Pontiac's  Lookout,  Scott's  Cave,  and  stroll  through 
the  beautiful  grounds  of  the  many  hotels  and  cafes 
found  here.  Mackinac  is  the  field  elysian  to  the 
disciple  of  Izaak  Walton,  and  as  a  summer  resort 
ranks  second  only  to  Harbor  Springs,  the  greatest 
one  in  this  Great  Lake  region. 

As  we  return  to  the  boat  we  see  that  more  than 
half  our  number  have  transferred  for  passage  to 
Chicago,  the  famous  metropolis  of  the  interior 
and  second  city  of  our  Union.  We  notice  a  cool 
summer  breeze,  and  find  that  our  thermometer 
registers  but  60  degrees, —  most  delightful  w-eather 
for  midsummer.  We  learn  that  the  average  tem- 
perature for  June  at  Mackinac  is  less  than  59° ; 
July,  64°;  August,  62°;   September,  56°  to  57°. 


84 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


MdCKinac   is'di'a  —  0,d   Fort.. 


At  12 :45  p.  M.  we  contiime  our  journey,  for 
we  are  588  miles  from  Buffalo.  Soon  we  enter 
the  St.  Mary's  river,  with  its  5000  emerald  isles 
and  lake-like  enlargements  all  along  its  length  of 
sixty-two  miles,  fringed  by  high  protecting  walls 
of  hills.  We  pass  by  an  island  that  reminds  us 
of  "  Jam  "  Island  that  we  visited  in  Lake  Huron, 
where  more  raspberry  jam  is  produced  than  in  any 
other  place  in  the  nation.  The  Indians  pick  the 
berries,  and  jam  is  made  by  thousands  of  gallons 
every  year. 

"We  observe  tents  alongshore  and  an  occasional 
motionless  and  seemingly  unoccupied  rowboat  as 
we  pass  along.  We  also  observe  that  our  boat  is 
moving  along  very  leisurely.  On  inquiring  we 
find  that  Government  watchers  are  in  the  tents 
and  rowboats.  It  is  their  business  to  see  that  no 
steamer  passes  through  this  river  at  a  speed  of 
more  than  twenty-one  miles  per  hour.      Should 


they  report  a  greater  speed  than  that,  owners  of 
the  vessel  are  required  to  pay  a  five-hundred-dollar 
fine.  The  peculiar  nature  of  navigation  in  the 
river  renders  this  precaution  necessary,  and  these 
Government  watchers  have  learned  to  spy  out  from 
inconspicuous  places  every  passing  vessel  of  more 
than  two  thousand  five  hundred  tons  burden.  No 
vessel  can  easily  elude  their  vigilance,  and  the 
Government  enforces  its  penalty  without  "fear 
or  favor." 

Just  before  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  we  reach 
Sault  Ste.  Marie.  On  account  of  the  rapids  in 
the  St.  Mary's  at  this  point,  the  river  is  not  navi- 
gable. To  obviate  this,  the  Government  at  a  great 
cost  built  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal  (popularly 
called  the  "  Soo "  Canal)  from  this  city  to  the 
lake,  a  distance  of  three  miles. 

Our  vessel  with  three  others  was  "  entered  "  at 
the  new  lock,  the  rear  gates  shut,  and  the  water 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


85 


Enter'Og  the  Lock,  "  Soo  '    Canai, 


let  in.  Ill  a  very  short  time  we  gradually  rose 
to  the  level  of  Lake  Superior  —  eighteen  feet  — 
and  the  front  gates  were  cleared  for  us  to  "toll 
out."  This  lock  was  opened  by  the  United  States 
Government  August  3,  1896.     It  took  nine  years 


Canal  Lock  Empty,  "Soo"  Canal. 


to  build  it,  and  it  cost  five  millions  of  dollars.  The 
lock  is  100  feet  wide,  and  is  twenty-one  feet  deeper 
than  the  level  of  the  river.  As  we  see,  it  is  long 
enough  to  "  lock  "  four  large  lake  steamers  through 
at  once. 

The  "  Soo  "  has  three  large  locks  —  two  opened 
by  the  United  States  Government,  and  one  built 
by  the  Canadian  Government.  The  latter  is  900 
feet  long,  60  feet  wide,  and  26f  feet  deep. 

As  we  pass  slowly  up  the  ship  canal  we  can  but 
think  of  the  effect  of  this  commercial  improve- 
ment on  the  Northwest  country.  In  the  early 
days  this  was  the  gateway  of  the  fur  trade,  but  to- 
day a  commercial  fleet  of  more  than  4000  steam 
and  sail  vessels  passes  through  this  gateway  with 
nearly  $240,000,000  of  the  nation's  varied  com- 
merce, and  navigates  these  great  inland  seas,  con- 
taining one-third  of  the  fresh  water  of  the  globe. 


86 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


And  wliat  is  tlie  cost?  Official  reports  of  late 
years  reveal  the  fact  that  lake  freight  is  being 
transported  at  an  average  cost  of  three-quarters 
of  a  mill  per  ton  per  mile,  while  the  very  lowest 
charge  by  rail  that  we  can  obtain  is  three  mills 
per  ton  per  mile.  Although  millions  of  dollars 
have  already  been  spent,  even  greater  expendi- 
tures are  planned  to  make  the  commercial  service 
of  these  natural  highways  still  more  remunerative 
and  effective. 

N'ow  we  are  upon  Superior,  the  greatest  body 
of  fresh  water  known  to  man.  It  covers  more  ter- 
ritory than  the  States  of  Delaware,  Rhode  Island, 
Massachusetts,  j^ew  Jersey,  and  Vermont,  with 
the  District  of  Columbia  and  our  island  posses- 
sions of  Wake,  Guam  and  Tutuila  thrown  in  for 
good  measure.  This  lake,  more  than  a  thousand 
feet  deep,  is  fed  by  thousands  of  cold  springs,  that 
make  the  water  even  in  midsummer  so  cool  that 
overcoats  and  other  winter  wraps  are  none  too 
heavy  for  deck  promenades. 

Look  at  those  receding  shores !  The  moonlight 
reveals  the  regular  layers  of  rock  that  are  so 
smooth  and  straight  that  one  would  think  them 
the  parts  of  some  carefully  laid  wall.  We  are 
told  that  it  is  nature's  own  handiwork,  and  that 
passengers  who  return  view  these  'scenes  by  day- 
light. They  report  this  the  beginning  of  those 
miles  and  miles  of  pictured  rocks  that  show  re- 
markable colors  in  the  sunlight.  The  southern 
shores  of  this  lake  give  to  Michigan  her  wealth 
of  copper,  coal,  and  iron.  Here  is  mined  one-third 
of  the  copper  of  our  nation,  the  richest  copper  re- 
gion of  the  world ;  while  the  iron  beds  of  Superior 
are  well-nigh  inexhaustible. 

A  little  before  noon  we  pass  this  busy  port  on 
Keweenaw  peninsula  called  Copper  Harbor. 
Here,  we  learn,  is  one  of  the  greatest  copper  ports 
in  our  land. 

Kow  we  are  water-bounded  on  the  bosom  of 
this  mighty  inland  sea.  The  "  I^orthwest "  is 
showing  herself  a  speedy  vessel,  making  her  top- 


rate  speed.  Seated  in  our  steamer-chair  on  the 
hurricane  deck,  in  a  place  that  shelters  us  from 
the  lake  breeze  yet  gives  a  commanding  view  to 
the  left  and  right,  with  a  good  ship's  orchestra 
giving  life  and  pleasure  to  all  on  shipboard,  with 
neither  dust  nor  heat  to  detract  or  annoy, —  surely, 
this  is  the  acme  of  travel  and  this  the  crowning 
pleasure  of  a  most  delightful  voyage. 

Time  forbids  telling  of  the  historic  and  remark- 
able islands  passed  on  the  way,  although  the  Apos- 
tle group  have  a  very  interesting  and  historic  past. 
Surely,  this  is  well  named  by  the  Ojibways,  "  Git- 
chee  Gumee  " — the  Big  Sea  Water. 

Sunset  on  Lake  Superior  can  be  painted  but 
not  described.  Have  you  ever  stood  before  a 
mighty  but  silent  power  and  felt  its  energy  thrill 
your  soul  ?  Did  you  ever  gaze  upon  a  picture  that 
was  so  beautiful,  so  impressive,  that  language  for- 
sook you,  and  then  you  would  stand  speechless, 
with  eyes  bringing  to  the  soul  the  indescribable 
beauty  that  the  artist  had  made  so  realistic  ?  Then 
you  may  know  that,  as  the  sun  slowly  sinks  to  his 
rest  and  stops  to  admire  the  roseate  beauty  of  his 
own  tinted  clouds  and  the  flashing  jewels  of  Su- 
perior's rippling  waters,  the  true  lover  of  nature 
is  impressed  by  the  depth  of  color  that  darkens 
in  the  waning  light,  and  feels  the  weight  of  the 
mighty  expanse  of  water  whose  gloom  is  forced 
in  upon  his  very  soul  by  the  slowly  deepening  twi- 
light shadows. 

Mighty  as  our  5000-ton  passenger  steamer  may 
seem,  when  that  "  Big  Sea  Water  "  shows  his  now 
hidden  force  our  steamer  w^ill  be  a  pigmy  in  the 
power  of  a  Samson  whose  strength  has  never  yet 
been  measured,  w^hose  power  is  infinite,  whose 
energy  man  can  never  compute. 

What  is  that  which  we  see  gleaming  far  over 
the  waters  ?  We  are  told  this  is  the  Two  Harbor 
Light.  Just  then  our  ship's  great  searchlight  is 
brought  to  bear  on  the  lighthouse,  and  we  see  that 
it  is  a  square  brick  tower  78  feet  high,  rising  from 
the  southwest  corner  of  the  keeper's  house,  a  two- 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


8T 


story  brick  dwelling  This  marks 
the  headland  of  Burlington  bay, 
and  is  fully  sixteen  miles  away. 

Later  we  see  straight  ahead  a 
deep  red  light  shining  steady  and 
strong,  with  a  flashing  red  light 
that  intermits  every  six  seconds. 
Soon  we  learn  that  these  are  the 
Duluth  harbor  lights,  that  are  sig- 
naled by  our  vessel's  signal  light. 
The  fixed  red  light  is  a  forty-foot 
light,  on  a  square,  brown  pyramid, 
open  framework  tower  that  marks 
the  outer  end  of  the  south  pier, 
the  entrance  to  Duluth  harbor. 
The  flashing  red  light  is  the  forty- 
six-foot  light  that  stands  on  a 
frame  tower  on  the  inner  end  of 
the  same  pier.  The  pilot  care- 
fully directs  the  steamer  to  her 
place  at  the  dock,  the  gang-plank  is 
let  down,  and  we  enter  the  "  Zenith 
City  of  the  unsalted  seas  "  —  Du- 
luth, 1066  miles  from  Buffalo. 

We  started  from  the  last-named 
city  Tuesday,  at  10:15  p.  m.,  and  we  entered  Du- 
luth at  10:30  p.  m.  the  following  Friday. 

We  flnd  Duluth  such  an  interesting  commercial 
city  that  here  we  spend  several  days.  The  city  is 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  rail  and  lake  trade 
and  is  one  of  the  great  commercial  centers  of  the 
Northwest  that  cleans,  stores  and  ships  grain  from 
"  the  world's  great  bread-basket."  On  the  lake- 
shore  we  find"  great  docks  running  out  into  the 
lake  from  two  to  four  thousand  feet,  from  50  to 
75  feet  high  and  50  to  60  feet  wide.  Looking 
across  to  Duluth's  sister  city,  Superior,  we  see  that 
great  ore  dock  where  20,000  tons  of  ore  is  daily 
loaded  in  the  freighters  of  the  lake.  Duluth,  Two 
Harbors,  Ashland,  Gladstone,  Superior  and  Es- 
canaba  are  the  great  shipping  points  for  iron  ore. 
The    freighters    transport   this    ore    (in    1901    it 


Loading  the  Great  Whaleback  Boat  at  the  famous  Grain  Elevators,  Chicago,  U.S.A. 


amounted  to  twenty  million  tons)  to  Conneaut, 
Cleveland,  Ashtabula,  Lorain  and  Fairport  on 
Lake  Erie,  and  South  Chicago  on  Lake  Michigan. 
We  are  surprised  to  see  how  the  "  gravity  dumps  " 
load  vessels  at  the  rate  of  scores  of  tons  per  hour, 
but  we  are  told  that  by  bridge  tramways  and  trol- 
ley "  vessels  at  the  ports  of  Chicago  and  Cleveland 
one  may  see  50,000  tons  unloaded  or  stored  in  a 
single  day.  There  being  little  or  no  coal  in  this 
region,  it  is  found  that  it  is  much,  cheaper  to  trans- 
port the  ore  to  the  coal  to  smelt,  than  it  would  be 
to  bring  the  coal  to  the  ore.  This  in  a  measure 
explains  why  the  great  coal  center  of  Pittsburg 
has  become  the  great  iron  and  steel  center  of  our 
nation. 

The  view  from  the  docks  looking  up  the  streets 
of  Duluth  is  very  impressive,  as  th^  city  ig  situ- 


88 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


ated  on  a  side-hill  facing  the  lake.  Thus  we  gain 
a  panorama  of  our  great  grain  and  ore  port  that 
has  been  brought  into  existence  by  our  iSTorthwest 
commerce.  In  1873  this  city  had  a  population 
of  only  3000;  to-day  it  has  more  than  twenty 
times  that  number.  Less  than  150  miles  south- 
west of  this  city  are  the  twin  cities  of  Minneapolis 
and  St.  Paul.  These  two  cities  form  one  of  the 
ten  great  commercial  and  manufacturing  centers 
of  our  nation.  Lying  as  they  do,  near  the  head- 
waters of  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi,  in  the 
vicinity  of  St.  Anthony's  Falls  (a  great  source  of 
mechanical  power  to-day),  with  the  vast  ^ain 
belt  of  the  !N'orthwest  at  their  very  doors,  they  are 
destined  to  enjoy  great  commercial  advantages. 
The  Pillsbury  Mills  are  famous,  and  grind  out 
daily  25,000  barrels  of  flour.  The  annual  output 
of  all  the  mills  of  Minneapolis  is  approximately 
15^  million  barrels,  thirty  per  cent,  of  which  is  ex- 
ported. Xearly  400,000  tons  of  feed  is  also  pro- 
duced in  these  mills.  The  exported  products,  if 
laid  in  a  line,  would  reach  from  Xew  York  to  Den- 
ver, and  if  the  entire  output  Avere  placed  in  line  it 
would  reach  from  Kew  York  to  Honolulu.  If 
loaded  on  cars,  it  would  make  a  solid  train  of 
freight  cars  1620  miles  long.  Truly,  then,  Minne- 
apolis may  be  called  the  "  flour  city  "  of  our  nation 
and  of  the  world.  Minnesota  makes  over  118,000 
barrels  of  flour  daily,  sending  much  of  it  to  the 
newly  developed  fields  of  South  Africa  and  the 
Orient,  as  well  as  to  England  and  Turkey.  All 
the  world's  mills  are  supposed  to  grind  out  on  an 
average  361  million  barrels  of  wheaten  flour  an- 
nually, to  support  the  more  than  510  millions  of 
bread-eaters.  The  amount  of  lumber  shipped  from 
St.  Paul  and  rafted  down  the  river  makes  it  one 
of  the  great  lumber  centers  of  our  Union. 

Now  we  leave  the  Duluth  docks  and  pass  the 
great  mill,  that  has  a  storage  capacity  of  650,000 
bushels  and  grinds  annually  6,750,000  bushels 
of  wheat  into  1,500,000  barrels  of  flour.  Yes, 
Duluth  has  one  of  the  three  greatest  mills  in  the 


world.  If  the  annual  product  of  this  one  mill  were 
placed  on  cars,  it  would  make  321  full  freight 
trains. 

We  now  pass  in  full  view  of  its  beautiful  high- 
school  building,  a  testimonial  of  the  educational 
interests  of  the  city,  and  built  at  a  cost  of  $400,- 
000. 


From   the   Iiakes    to   tlie   Pacific. 

We  decide  to  travel  westward  by  the  "Great 
]^orthern  Flyer,"  that  leaves  Duluth  at  7:55  a.  m. 
We  are  pleased  to  see  that  this  northwestern  train 
has  all  the  conveniences  of  a  modern  vestibuled 
train. 

Seated  in  the  observatory  car,  we  are  delighted 
with  the  panorama  of  field,  meadow,  wood,  and 
lake.  From  our  fellow-travelers  we  learn  that 
this  State  of  Minnesota  has  80  counties,  yet  only 
two  of  these  has  less  tlian  1000  acres  of  water  sur- 
face. It  is  the  Lake  State  of  the  iN'orthwest,  with 
more  than  5000  lakes  of  area  sufficient  to  be  named 
on  maps,  while  many  more  bear  local  names.  Her 
fields  of  famous  Xo.  1  wheat  of  nearly  three  mill- 
ion acres,  with  her  barley,  oats,  flax  and  potato 
crops,  make  Minnesota  a  very  important  State  for 
agricultural  products  as  well  as  for  her  dairy,  lum- 
ber, mineral  and  manufacturing  interests. 

We  see  the  track  of  that  other  great  transconti- 
nental railway  —  the  !N^orthern  Pacific  —  that  has 
done  so  much  to  develop  tlie  resources  of  this  re- 
gion. Both  roads  link  the  lake  region  with  the 
Xorth  Pacific  trade  centers  of  our  Union,  and  re- 
veal the  important  agency  of  railroads  in  estab- 
lishing settlements  and  awakening  trade.  At  noon 
we  passed  through  the  fisherman's  paradise,  the 
lake  region  reaching  from  Millehacs  to  Red  lake, 
our  line  crossing  it  at  Cass  lake. 

At  5  :30  we  reach  the  Red  river  of  the  Ts'orth, 
the  valley  of  which  is  the  greatest  wheat  belt  on 
the  globe.  Here  wheat  farms  of  thousands  of 
acres  each  can  be  seen.  A  manager  of  one  of 
these  farms  boarded  the  train  at  Grand  Forks, 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


89 


A   Moaeri".   Harvestur. 


bound  for  Portland.  From  him  we  learn  some 
interesting  facts  concerning  the  plowing,  seeding 
and  harvesting  of  a  crop  on  a  "  bonanza  "  wheat 
farm.  The  farm  under  his  management  consisted 
of  7000  acres.  Under  him  were  three  division 
superintendents.  At  each  division  headquarters 
were  a  dining-hall,  dormitory,  kitchen,  stable  and 
implement  barns,  and  a  blacksmith's  shop.  Two 
elevators  are  situated  on  opposite  sides  of  the  farm 
along  the  line  of  railroad  that  runs  through  the 
farm.  These  elevators  have  a  capacity  of  100,000 
bushels  of  grain.  !N^ear  the  center  of  the  estate 
is  the  manager's  office,  connected  with  the  divi- 
sion headquarters  by  telephone. 

The  plowing  is  generally  done  in  the  fall,  be- 
ginning in  October.  Each  plow  turns  two  furrows, 
and  there  are  between  twenty-five  and  thirty  plows 
in  each  of  the  three  gangs  used  on  the  farm.     As 


early  in  April  as  weather  permits,  the  ground  is 
harrowed.  Each  man  runs  a  twenty-  to  twenty- 
five-foot  harrow,  and  can  cover  from  55  to  65  acres 
per  day.  As  soon  after  harrowing  as  possible, 
seeding  is  begun.  Each  man  runs  an  eleven-foot 
seeder  drawn  by  four  horses,  and  often  travels 
more  than  twenty-five  miles  per  day. 

Harvesting  usually  begins  about  July  20th  to 
25th.  This  often  calls  for  new  machinery.  Fargo 
is  reported  to  sell  nearly  three  million  dollars' 
worth  annually.  Until  recently,  harvesters  that 
cut,  bind  and  bunch  the  wheat  have  been  used ; 
then  the  threshers  followed.  But  this  year  our 
Dakota  friend  tried  the  use  of  a  California  har- 
vester. This  machine  is  run  by  a  traction  engine. 
It  cuts,  threshes  and  sacks  grain  from  50  to  100 
acres  in  a  day.  This  usually  averages  from  1200 
to  1800  sacks  per  day. 


90 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


We  ask  him  about  the  sale  of  his  wheat.  He 
says  he  has  a  wire  from  his  office  to  both  Duluth 
and  Minneapolis,  and  is  in  constant  touch  with 
the  world's  prices.  Thus  he  keeps  himself  in- 
formed, and  knows  when  and  where  is  the  best 
market.  "Most  of  my  wheat  I  sell  Duluth  at 
fifty  cents  to  seventy-five  cents  per  bushel,  F.O.B. 
farm." 

The  best  Avheat  each  year  is  reserved  for  seed, 
so  that  a  wheat  well  adapted  to  the  climate  has 
been  obtained.  Some  fall  wheat  is  so^vn,  but  the 
majority  of  wheat  raised  in  the  Red  river  valley 
is  spring  wheat. 

From  Grand  Forks  westward  beyond  the  valley 
200  miles,  we  see  oceans  of  waving  grain,  stretch- 
ing like  the  limitless  sea  from  horizon  to  horizon. 

We  reach  the  largest  body  of  water  on  the  plains 
at  8  :20.  This  is  known  as  Devil's  lake,  90  miles 
west  of  the  Red  river.  This  lake  is  fifty  miles  long 
and  three  miles  wide.  Here  we  find  the  Chautau- 
qua grounds  of  Xorth  Dakota,  Ft.  Totten,  and  a 
Sioux  Indian  reservation. 

We  reach  Minot  at  11 :30  p.  m.  We  are  told  at 
this  station  to  set  our  watches  back  for  mountain 
time,  and  we  go  out  nearly  an  hour  before  we 
came  in.  Minot  is  a  division  headquarters,  and 
marks  the  line  between  the  grazing  and  farming 
lands.  We  have  climbed  nearly  one  thousand  feet 
nearer  the  sky  since  we  left  Duluth,  500  miles 
eastward.  Settlements  are  now  less  frequent, 
while  sheep,  cattle  and  horses  feed  on  the  buffalo- 
grass  that  everywhere  abounds.  For  many  years 
here  was  the  home  of  the  buffalo,  and  it  is  esti- 
mated that  the  hunter  in  two  years  slaughtered 
at  least  half  a  million.  But  the  buffalo  has  been 
driven  from  his  native  haunts,  and  a  few  hundred 
in  the  upper  British  Columbia  country  count  all 
that  now  remain  of  the  vast  herds  of  the  American 
bison. 

Just  at  daybreak  we  reach  Milk  river  station. 
We  follow  Milk  river,  an  important  tributary  of 
the  "Big  Muddy,"  for  180  miles. 


Just  a  little  after  ten  o'clock  we  reach  Chinook. 
This  is  the  center  of  the  Milk  river  valley  irriga- 
tion, and  the  ditches  can  be  seen  from  the  car  win- 
dows. To  the  south  we  can  see  the  Bear  Paw 
mountains,  marking  the  southern  limit  of  this 
irrigated  region,  that  has  more  farm-houses  than 
any  other  section  of  Montana  that  our  railroad 
crosses.  Twenty  miles  west  of  this  point  is  Havre, 
where  we  renew  food  supplies.  While  this  is  be- 
ing done  we  learn  from  an  old  miner  that  the  train 
on  the  siding  runs  to  the  largest  mining  camp  in 
the  world,  300  miles  away.  "Where  is  that?" 
"  Butte  City.  There  is  enough  ore  now  visible  to 
keep  mills  and  smelters  at  work  for  half  a  century, 
while  no  man  knows  how  much  more  the  earth 
holds.  Here,  sir,  we  beat  the  world  on  silver,  lead, 
and  copper.  We  have  a  city  of  12,000  of  the 
busiest,  heartiest,  noisiest,  sauciest,  brightest,  most 
hospitable  people  in  the  Rockies.  We  have  the 
Paris  of  mining  towns,  the  metropolis  of  hustle- 
dom,  the  capital  of  hullabaloo,  the  Athens  of  Mon- 
tana." The  city  is  on  a  mountain  that  is  fairly 
honeycombed  with  mines,  and  is  netted  every- 
where with  railroad  tracks.  On  account  of  its 
mills  and  smelters,  scarcely  a  green  thing  can  be 
found  in  the  town. 

This  branch  connects  with  the  IN^orthem  Pacific 
at  Helena,  the  capital  of  the  State.  The  ^Northern 
Pacific  and  the  Great  !Morthern  with  their  tribu- 
tary lines  comprise  the  Morgan-Hill  system  of  rail- 
roads, covering  more  than  20,000  miles, —  the 
greatest  railway  system  in  point  of  mileage  on  the 
American  continent.  Helena  has  an  altitude  of 
more  than  3000  feet,  is  mountain-bound,  and  the 
center  of  the  rich  gold  and  silver  mining  district. 
This  city,  founded  in  1864,  has  grown  to  be  a  very 
important  center  for  mining  commerce  of  this, 
the  greatest  copper  State  in  the  Union,  while  it 
annually  yields  millions  of  tons  of  gold,  silver, 
lead,  and  coal. 

Our  train  bears  us  now  steadily  upward.  Xo 
steep  ascents,  few  sharp  curves,  yet  at  7  p.  m.  we 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


91 


find  ourselves  on  the  Continental  divide,  in  the 
midst  of  towering  peaks  with  immense  drifts  of 
lodged  snow.  The  train  halts  for  ten  minutes  so 
its  passengers  can  take  a  glimpse  of  this  delightful 
spot  —  Summit  Station.  We  are  in  a  meadow  of 
several  hundred  acres.  Just  north  of  us  is  "Di- 
vide Mountain,"  the  waters  from  its  melting  snows 
going  on  the  east  into  the  Gulf,  and  thence  to  the 
Atlantic;  and  on  the  west,  by  the  Columbia,  is 
transported  to  the  Pacific  ocean.  This  meadow  is 
the  highest  point  reacted  by  our  railroad  —  5200 
feet  above  sea-level ;  yet  we  realize  that  we  are  in 
one  of  Nature's  amphitheaters,  with  peaks  that 
catch  the  sun's  gleam  from  2500  to  3000  feet  above 
us. 

In  this  backbone  of  the  continent,  less  than  fifty 
miles  from  where  Ave  are  now  standing,  lies  that 
"  loveliest  of  mountain  «nirrors,"  Lake  MacDonald. 
In  this  Lake  MacDonald  region,  such  glaciers, 
cascades  and  avalanche  basins  have  been  found, 
that  it  is  not  inaptly  termed  "  The  Northern  Yo- 
semite."  Here  then  is  the  "  Crown  of  the  Conti- 
nent," which  tourists  tell  us  is  unsurpassed  by  the 
scenic  Alps ;  and  its  wild  regions  have  not  yet  been 
fully  explored. 

Xorth  of  us  Chief  Mountain  lifts  its  ice-clad 
crest  10,800  feet  in  air.  Xestling  in  a  valley  near 
this  mountain,  we  are  told,  is  to  be  found  the 
Geneva  of  America  —  the  St.  Mary's  lakes.  Great 
glaciers  keep  these  supplied  with  water,  while  ex- 
perienced travelers  tell  us  that  it  truly  is  a  region 
more  wild  and  awe-inspiring  than  far-famed  Swit- 
zerland. Few  hunters  have  found  this  region ;  so 
elk,  moose,  deer  and  grizzly  bears  abound  in  the 
pine  forests,  while  among  the  mountain-peaks  are 
found  more  Rocky  Mountain  goats  and  "big- 
horns" than  in  any  other  region. 

We  are  now  1125  miles  west  of  Duluth,  in  the 
celebrated  Blackfoot  region  of  the  Rockies. 

Our  train  begins  the  downward  descent.  We 
pass  through  dense  forests  of  coniferous  trees; 
round  rugged  peaks  whose  hoary  summits  are  lost 


to  sight  from  the  observatory  car,  but  whose  sides 
bear  great  ledges  of  solid  rock  or  rich  robes  of  vel- 
yet  green.  Frequently  we  see  cascades  of  water 
silvered  by  the  moonlight. 

About  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  our  train 
reaches  Jennings.  This  is  a  good  site  for  a 
large  commercial  city,  as  the  fertile  tobacco  plains 
are  adjacent,  while  the  Kootenca  river  flows  by  the 
town.  This  river  is  larger  than  the  Hudson ;  rises 
within  one  mile  of  the  Columbia,  and  is  fully  600 
miles  long,  flowing  through  rich  mineral  lands. 
Its  boats  have  a  heavy  traffic  in  ore.  From  Jen- 
nings for  more  than  sixty  miles  we  follow  the  can- 
yon of  this  river,  that  finally  bends  abruptly  to  the 
north  to  flow  into  the  lake  of  the  same  name  in 
British  Columbia. 

Through  the  night  our  train  takes  us  over  tres- 
tles, plunges  through  forests,  threads  canyons, 
crosses  divides,  and  at  eight  o'clock  next  morning 
we  find  ourselves  in  Spokane,  that  some  geogra- 
phers have  sought  to  give  to  Idaho,  but  we  find  to 
be  sure  and  safe  by  more  than  forty  miles  in  the 
gieat  State  of  Washington.  Here  we  set  our 
watches  back  to  agree  with  Pacific  time.  In  the 
very  center  of  the  city  is  found  the  falls  that  named 
the  towTi.  Here  is  located  a  great  water-power 
station  that  transmits  power  for  heat,  light  and 
mechanical  purposes.  Spokane  is  the  center  of  a 
rich  mineral,  timber,  and  agricultural  section  of 
many  thousand  square  miles  in  extent.  This  has 
made  it  a  great  shipping  point,  and  has  developed 
a  railway  center  here.  It  is  a  city  of  more  than 
40,000,  noted  for  its  substantial  buildings,  mod- 
ern conveniences,  and  general  thrift  and  industry 
of  its  citizens,  and  is  the  metropolis  of  east  Wash- 
ington. 

We  now  pass  through  the  great  areas  of  pasture 
and  grain  lands  in  the  famous  "  Big  Bend  Coun- 
try "  of  the  Columbia  river,  covering  an  area  of 
more  than  7000  square  miles.  Grains,  fruits, 
tubers,  sorghum  and  tobacco  are  grown  in  this 
region.     Wheat  ripens  here  without  rust,  and  a 


92 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Profile  of  Mountains  crossed  by  Switchback,  showing 
Route  of  Tunnel. 


harvester  drawn  by  more  than  a  score  of  horses 
is  used  to  cut,  thresh,  clean  and  sack  the  grain. 

A  little  after  noon  we  reach  the  Wenatchee  val- 
ley. Situated  at  the  junction  of  the  river  (after 
which  the  station  is  named)  and  the  Columbia,  is 
the  half-way  village  between  Spokane  and  Seattle 
— Wenatchee,  surrounded  with  orchards  and  vine- 
yards. Many  tourists  go  from  tliis  point  up  the 
Columbia  to  the  Lake  Chelan  region.  This  lake 
is  sixty  miles  long;  is  the  second  deepest  body  of 
fresh  w^ater  on  the  globe;  and  with  Castle  Moun- 
tain to  the  west,  Goat  Mountain  on  the  east,  a- can- 
yon at  its  foot  thousands  of  feet  in  depth,  and  at 
its  head  400  mountain-peaks,  ranging  from  900 
to  11,000  feet  high,  embracing  icy  glaciers,  in  full 
view,  surely  this  lake  is  a  gem  of  the  Cascade 
mountains,  a  Washington  natural  wonder. 

We  soon  reach  Leavenworth,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Cascades,  where  an  extra  engine  is  attached  to  take 
us  through  the  Tumwater  (Talking  Water)  can- 
yon. This  is  ten.  miles  long,  and  follows  the  roar- 
ing, rollicking  Wenatchee,  that  plays  a  rollicking 
game  with  boulders  and  cascades  all  the  way.  At 
four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  we  reach  Cascade 
Tunnel. 

Until  January,  1901,  trains  were  taken  over 
the  mountains  by  means  of  the  "  switchback."  A 
large  twelve-wheeled  engine  was  attached  to  the 
rear  of  the  train,  and  the  zigzagging  up  the  sides 
of  the  mountain  commenced. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  short  length  of  track, 
called  a  "  leg,"  the  train  stopped,  switches  were 
thrown,  and  the  rear  of  the  train  became  the  head 
end    until   the   next    "leg"    was    reached,    when 


switches  were  turned  and  the  front  end  again 
became  the  head  end,  going  up  the  mountain. 
In  this  way  three  legs  on  the  east  side,  with 
an  average  rise  of  three  and  one-half  feet  to 
every  hundred  feet,  brought  the  train  to  Cas- 
cade Summit,  4027  feet.  The  descent  down 
the  west  slope  was  a  four  per  cent,  grade 
(four  feet  descent  to  each  100  feet),  with 
four  legs.  This  switchback  was  considered  a 
unique  feature  in  railroading,  but  the  Cascade  tun- 
nel, opened  to  travel  in  1901,  is  a  marvel  of  engi- 
neering skill.  It  was  begun  in  January,  1897. 
When  the  originator  of  the  plan,  Pres.  J.  J.  Hill, 
spoke  of  it  to  railroad  men,  many  laughed,  and  de- 
clared it  would  bankrupt  the  road.  President  Hill 
said  that  it  would  save  twelve  miles  of  track  and 
several  hours  to  the  coast,  and  that  the  surplus  rev- 
enue of  the  road  should  build  it.  Experienced 
railroad  engineers  w^ith  compressed  air-drills  and 
a  thousand  workmen  went  to  work  on  the  tunnel  on 
both  sides  of  the  mountain.  The  excavated  work 
was  delivered  by  electric  cars  to  large  crushers  hav- 
ing a  capacity  of  forty  tons  an  hour.  The  crushed 
fragments  were  mixed  with  sand  and  Portland  ce- 
ment and  returned  by  the  electric  car  line,  to  line 
the  inside  of  the  tunnel  with  a  concrete  wall  four 
feet  thick.  In  December,  1900,  the  two  gangs  of 
workmen  met  in  the  middle  of  the  mountain,  the 
two  openings  meeting  without  the  variation  of  an 
inch.  January  1,  1901,  traffic  was  begun  through 
this  tunnel,  which  is  two  and  one-half  miles  long, 
sixteen  feet  wide,  and  twenty-three  feet  high, — a 
memorial  to  the  skill  of  American  engineers. 

We  now  prepare  to  go  through  the  tunnel.  Our 
coal-burning  engines  are  removed,  and  an  electric 
locomotive  is  attached  to  take  us  through  the  tun- 
nel; so  neither  smoke  nor  gas  will  cause  annoy- 
ance. A  pumping-machine  at  the  entrance  runs 
huge  exhaust  fans,  which,  together  with  a  system 
of  pipes,  keeps  the  air  in  the  tunnel  pure  and  whole- 
some. This  ride  through  the  tunnel  is  a  pleasant 
one,  for  its  white  walls  reflect  the  light  from  the 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


93 


double  chain  of  electric  lights, 
and  make  "  daylight "  all  the 
time. 

At  Wellington  station,  the 
west  entrance  to  the  tunnel, 
steam  locomotives  are  substi- 
tuted for  the  electric,  and  we 
are  soon  winding  down  into 
the  wonderfully  productive 
Puget  Sound  region. 

At  six  o'clock  in  the  even- 
ing  we   reach   Everett,    and 
catch  our  first  view  of  Puget 
Sound.       Webster,    in    Con- 
gress,   in    1845,    spoke    thus 
of    this    Northwest    region: 
"  What  do  we  want  of  this 
worthless    area    of    shifting 
sands     and     whirlwinds     of 
dust;    of  cactus  and  prairie- 
dogs;  a  coast  of   3000  miles,   rockbound,   cheer- 
less and  uninviting,  without  a  harbor  in  it  ? "  At 
Everett,   a  to^\^l  less  than  twelve  years  old,  yet 
with  more  than  12,000  citizens  living  in  a  modern 
city  of  substantial  brick  buildings,  we   are  told 
that  this  Puget  Sound  region  has  as  many  good 
harbors  as  half  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 


View  of  Seattle,  Washington. 


Twenty  M'llion  feet  of  Lumber  in  one  yard,  Taconna,  Washington. 

At  half-past  six  we  reach  the  great  commercial 
metropolis  of  the  !N^orthwest —  Seattle,  1800  miles 
west  of  Duluth.    We  find  that  settlers  came  to  Se- 
attle in  1852  to  found  a  saw-mill.     In  1869  the 
town  of  Seattle  (named  after  an  Indian  chief  of 
a  friendly  tribe)  was  incorporated  as  a  city.     Soon 
came  railroads,   industrial  works,   foreign  trade, 
and  in  1880  it  was  a  city  of  35,- 
000.       To-day    it    is    a    city    of 
100,000,    with    more    than    4000 
business    firms,    representing   250 
lines     of     commercial     interests. 
Her  manufacturing  interests  show 
19,000  men  employed,  with  an  out- 
put of  fifty  million  dollars'  worth 
in    1900,      j^Tineteen    miles    from 
the  city  are  the  Snoqualmie  Falls, 
286  feet  high,  the  source  of  Se- 
attle's   light    and    electric    power. 
The  second  largest  iron  foundry  on 
the  Pacific  coast  is  here. 


94     . 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


A  Washington  Saw-log. 

Captain  Reuton  some  years  ago  established  a 
lumber  mill  on  Blakely  harbor,  across  Elliott  bay 
from  Seattle.     It  runs  day  and  night,  and  is  now 


one  of  the  largest  lumber  mills  in 
the  world,  owning  its  ships  and 
sending  lumber  to  all  parts  of 
the  world.  It  turned  out  125 
million  feet  of  lumber  in  1900. 
At  her  long  sweep  of  wharves, 
vessels  are  loaded  for  the  Alas- 
kan ports  and  cities  of  the  Ori- 
ental seaboard,  as  well  as  for 
Australia.  Two  new  Oriental 
freighters,  with  a  thousand-car 
capacity  each,  have  just  been 
put  in  commission,  to  sail  from 
t^liis  port  to  Japanese  ports. 
<  aptain  Healy,  in  February, 
1901,  said  that  in  twenty-five 
years  Alaska  and  the  Klondike 
would  produce  more  actual  min- 
eral wealth  than  the  entire  world 
has  contributed  during  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century.  Seattle  to-day  has  two- 
thirds  of  the  Alaskan  trade. 

At  Tacoma,  a  "  Sound  city "  north  of  Seattle, 


The  Longest  Wheat  Warehouse  in  the  World,  at  Tacoma. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


95 


A  Salmon  Catch  —  Puget  Sound. 


are  located  great  lumber  mills,  box  factories,  and 
more  than  240  industries,  employing  so  many 
hands  that  it  has  the  largest  factory  pay-roll  on 
the  coast,  save  San  Francisco  alone.  Here  we  find 
the  -wheat  port  of  Washington,  with  splendid 
wharves  for  her  greatly  growing  ocean  commerce. 
Lately  the  "  Glen  "  line  of  merchant  steamers  to 
London  via  Suez  Canal  has  been  added,  making 
over  twenty  steamers  that  ply  between  Tacoma 
and  the  Orient  alone.  We  find  that  her  chamber 
of  commerce  reports  her  imports  and  exports  for 
quarter  ending  March  31st,  1901,  to  exceed  four 
million  dollars.  She  ships  more  flour  to  the  Orient 
than  all  China  imported  five  years  ago.  Twenty 
years  ago  this  city  had  barely  1000  inhabitants; 
to-day  it  is  a  city  of  nearly  50,000. 

We  spend  three  days  in  this  Puget  Sound  region, 
and  find  that  its  1600  miles  of  shore-line  affords 


facilities  for  the  safe  handling  of  a  commerce 
equal  to  the  whole  Atlantic  coast  commerce  of  our 
nation.  The  fisheries  include  oysters,  clams,  crabs, 
smelts,  herring,  cod,  sturgeon,  halibut,  and  mack- 
erel, w^hile  more  than  6000  men  and  boys  are  em- 
ployed in  the  salmon  industry,  over  a  million  cases 
of  salmon  being  shipped  from  a  single  season's 
catch.  Xinety-five  varieties  of  food  fish  are  found 
in  this  sound.  Fringing  these  shores  are  the  great- 
est forests  of  fir,  cedar,  hemlock  and  spruce  in  the 
world.  This  State  of  Washington  contains  thir- 
teen millions  of  acres  of  valuable  timber,  that  stat- 
isticians tell  us  will  furnish  one  billion  feet  of 
lumber  per  annum  for  twelve  centuries.  Many  of 
these  trees  are  from  200  to  300  feet  high,  and 
measure  from  10  to  Y5  feet  in  circumference. 
Washington's  mineral  wealth  has  scarcely  yet  been 
realized ;  her  tide  lands  have  been  known  to  yield 


96 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


from  40  to  50  bushels  of  wlieat  per  acre,  140  bush- 
els of  oats,  and  average  1500  pounds  of  hops, 
while  some  places  yield  3000  pounds  per  acre ;  and 
the  average  yield  of  potatoes  is  160  bushels  per 
acre. 

Seattle  being  950  miles  north  of  San  Francisco, 
makes  this  city  500  miles  nearer  the  Orient  trade 
and  a  thousand  miles  nearer  Alaska.  Her  location 
and  natural  advantages  mark  Seattle  as  a  fair 
rival  with  San  Francisco  for  the  growing  trade 
of  the  Pacific  lands. 

As  the  Sound  steamer  bears  us  back  to  Seattle, 
the  lowering  sun  reddens  the  crest  of  Mt.  Rainer, 
the  white-headed  sentinel  whose  summit  is  14,529 
feet  above  the  sound's  level,  and  then  "  Old  Sol " 
sinks  into  the  Sound.  As  we  pass  up  to  our  boat's 
pier  we  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  "  Nebraska,"  a 
battle-ship  built  at  Seattle,  whose  bows  are  twenty 
feet  higher  than  the  three-story  buildings,  just 
behind,  in  the  city.  Fair,  beautiful  land,  where 
the  industrious,  inventive  Yankee  is  destined  to 
multiply  your  riches  and  enhance  your  present 
splendor  and  wonder. 

Here  we  steam  past  Japan  and  Port  Arthur 
steamers  this  July  night,  taking  a  cargo  for  their 
Oriental  ports  in  sight  of  ice-clad  and  snow-cov- 
ered mountains,  silvery  cold,  in  the  moonlight. 

Thus  we  enter  the  Empress  City  of  the  j^orth- 
west,  and  prepare  for  our  long-distanced  Pacific 
voyage. 

A   Trip    through    the    Pacific. 

We  desire  to  visit  our  mid-Pacific  neighbors. 
How  can  we  go?  We  will  take  one  of  the  new 
commercial  freighters ;  it  was  put  into  commis- 
sion in  1901,  and  plies  between  Honolulu  and 
Seattle.  The  steamer  we  select  has  a  measure- 
ment capacity  of  28,000  tons,  and  will  carry  20,- 
000  tons  of  freight.  Its  deck  room  is  for  freight 
purposes,  and  covers  five  acres  in  extent,  while  it 
carries  the  load  of  fifty  ordinary  freight  trains  of 
thirty  cars  each.     This  vessel  is  larger  than  both 


the  St.  Louis  and  her  sister  ship  St.  Paul,  two 
transatlantic  passenger  liners  described  in  a  pre- 
ceding chapter.  Our  ticket  to  Honolulu  costs  us 
$75,  for  our  port  is  2364  miles  away.  This  is 
what  it  cost  us  from  Boston  to  Seattle,  the  route 
we  took  covering  3425  miles. 

We  purchase  our  ticket,  and  find  our  stateroom 
amidships  on  upper  deck.  Leaving  our  belong- 
ings here,  we  hasten  out  to  see  what  the  stevedores 
are  loading  our  liner  with.  We  find  that  they  are 
giving  her  a  cargo  of  lumber,  flour,  and  miscella- 
neous merchandise.  The  steamers  from  this  port 
in  1900  took  fifty  million  feet  of  lumber,  flour,  and 
wheat,  and  thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  miscel- 
laneous products. 

Slowly  we  move  down  the  bay,  past  the  West 
Point  Light,  five  miles  northwest  of  Seattle,  and, 
entering  Admiralty  Inlet,  steam  along  the  shore 
of  Whitby  Island  until  we  reach  Port  Townsend's 
wharves.  We  touch  here  to  take  on  additional 
cargo.  Just  a  few  feet  from  end  of  Port  Hudson, 
on  the  wharf,  we  see  the  Government  post  light 
established  here  in  1887,  and  rebuilt  in  1894. 
This  is  a  white  lantern,  while  two  miles  northwest, 
where  the  inlet  enters  the  Juan  de  Fuca  strait, 
the  dark  lantern  on  top  of  a  low  conical  tower, 
above  a  white  dwelling,  indicates  to  our  pilot. 
Point  Wilson  Light.  On  the  east  side,  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  inlet,  is  the  Admiralty  Head  Light. 
This  is  at  Red  Bluff,  "Whitby  Island,  and  also  has 
a  dark  lantern,  but  is  on  a  square  wooden  tower 
rising  from  the  south  end  of  a  white  dwelling. 
Here  we  swing  to  the  west  as  we  pass  out  between 
the  two  lights  and  enter  the  strait.  Eleven  miles  to 
the  northwest  flashes  the  Smith  Island  Light,  and 
directly  ahead  gleams  the  new  Dungeness  Light. 

Across  the  strait  at  the  west  entrance  of  Esqui- 
mault  Harbor,  Vancouver's  Island,  shines  the  Brit- 
ish Fishguard  Light.  Far  beyond  all  these  lights, 
in  the  strait  near  the  national  boundary-line,  is 
the  Race  Rocks  Light,  flashing  white  every  five 
seconds;    and  in  case  a  fog  is  prevalent,  it  blows 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


97 


a  five-second  fog  signal  every  seventy-two 
seconds.  If  the  northern  portion  of  Juan 
de  Fuca  is  free  from  fog,  its  four-blast  sig- 
nals tell  this  comforting  fact  to  any  fog-en- 
veloped steamer. 

Carefully  our  pilot  directs  our  course 
toward  the  Ediz  Hook  Light,  which  is  the 
beacon  that  guards  the  entrance  to  Port  Angelus 
harbor.  Here,  in  October,  1895,  the  United  States 
!N^avy  Department  established  a  naval  station  for 
the  United  States  Pacific  squadron.  Speaking  of 
this  harbor,  Eear  Admiral  L.  A.  Beardslie  said: 
"  This  is  a  marvelous  work  of  nature.  There  are 
no  sandbars  to  interfere  w^ith  the  movements  of  the 
ships.  Once  the  ships  are  here,  I  have  no  anxiety 
about  any  accidents.  No  rocks,  no  shifting  sands 
to  be  continually  watched.  Smooth  sailing  right 
into  port,  and  perfect  anchorage  anywhere  you  drop 
your  anchor.  It  is  indeed  a  'harbor  of  refuge.' 
The  wonder  is  that  the  harbor  has  never  been  dis- 
covered by  the  I^^aval  Department  before." 

Here  is  Port  Angelus,  the  "  Gateway  City  "  of 
the  straits,  seventy-five  miles  northwest  of  Seattle.. 
This  city  is  the  county  seat  of  the  forest  county 
of  Clallam,  that  shows  1,000,000  acres  of  timber 
land.  Clallam  county  lumber-men  claim  84,100 
feet  of  lumber  has  been  obtained  from  one  fir  tree 
seventy-five  feet  around. 

The  cover  of  darkness  prevents  our  seeing  the 
picturesque  scenery  that  surrounds  this  "  Gate 
City  "  of  the  Northwest,  and  with  our  vessel  headed 
westward  we  know  no  more  until  the  call  to  break- 
fast brings  us  from  our  stateroom  to  the  dining- 
room.  After  breakfast  we  seek  the  deck.  We 
are  now  nearing  the  ocean,  whose  rolling  waves 
are  just  ahead.  To  the  north,  at  the  most  south- 
ern extremity  of  Bonilla  Point,  Vancouver,  is  the 
white  square  wooden  tower  whose  red  lantern  tells 
the  sailor  its  name  is  Carmanah  Point.  Herfi  ves- 
sels can,  by  the  International  Code  signals,  com- 
municate with  Victoria  by  telegraph. 

At  the  very  entrance  of  the  strait  on  Tatoosh 


Cape  Flattery  Light  Station,  Washington. 

Island,  one-half  mile  northwest  of  Cape  Flattery, 
is  Cape  Flattery  Lighthouse,  a  gray  stone  dwelling 
surmounted  by  a  white  conical  tower  that  bears 
the  lantern.  Here  is  located  a  signal  display  sta- 
tion connected  with  Port  Townsend  by  telegraph. 
Thus  we  see  our  Government  has  provided  for  the 
protection  of  life  and  property  at  points  of  danger 
on  sea  and  sound,  as  not  only  lighthouse  service 
but  life-saving  stations  are  also  found  here. 

In  another  chapter  it  is  shown  that  like  giant 
sentinels,  flashing  their  long  pencilings  of  light, 
stand  the  coast  lighthouses,  to  direct  the  intrepid 
mariner  in  his  commercial  voyage  along  dangerous 
coasts  where  the  tumultuous  waves  of  jagged  reefs 
render  navigation  hazardous.  The  lights  known 
as  "  sector  lights  "  are  the  harbor  lights  that  point 
out  the  channel  to  the  vessel  pilots.  At  other 
places,  beacons,  spindles,  fog-horns  and  whistle- 
ing-buoys  help  to  divide  the  ocean  up  into  high- 
ways which  all  sailors  understand  and  all  commer- 
cial nations  agree  in  maintaining. 

Then  we  see  the  ocean  has  its  sign-posts  and  its 
signals  to  understand,  which  is  the  first  duty  of 
the  sailor. 

We  now  feel  the  "ground  swell,"  revealing  be- 
neath us  the  power  of  a  mighty  force,  and  causing 
many  of  our  number  to  grow  strangely  weak,  faint, 
and  sick.  They  seek  their  staterooms,  and  do  not 
again  appear  on  deck  until  the  third  day  out.  But 
our  trip  across  the  Atlantic  has  "  immuned "  us 
from  seasickness,-  and  we  enjoy  the  sight  of  the 
dancing  waves  in  the  morning  sunlight.  Cape 
Flattery,  140  miles  from  Seattle,  slowly  shades 
into  the  eastern  blue,  and  our  ocean  voyage  has 
really  begun. 


98 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Sea-Gulls  on  the  Pacific  Oceaa 

What  are  these  large  white  birds  flying  seaward 
just  ahead?  They  are  the  most  active  scavengers 
of  the  ocean,  the  bird  monarchs  of  the  Pacific  — 
the  sea-gulls.  It  is  no  uncommon,  thing  for  a  score 
or  more  of  these  birds  to  accompany  a  vessel  in 
its  voyage,  feeding  on  the  refuse  which  is  thrown 
overboard.  Some  years  ago  one  of  these  birds 
was  caught  by  the  passengers  of  a  steamship  just 
as  it  left  San  Francisco  harbor  on  its  voyage  to 
Japan.  A  piece  of  red  tape,  with  date  and  loca- 
tion, was  tied  fast  to  one  of  its  legs,  and  the  bird 
set  at  liberty.  That  bird  was  one  of  many  gulls 
which  followed  the  steamer  into  Yokohama  har- 
bor, over  4500  miles  away. 

At  noon  our  vessel  takes  her  bearings,  and  from 
these  data  makes  up  her  log.  How  is  this  done? 
Every  ship  is  provided  with  a  chronometer  which 
registers  Greenwich  time,  the  focal  time  for  longi- 
tude and  time  reckoning.  At  exactly  the  noon  in- 
stant by  the  captain's  watch,  registering  Pacific 
time,  the  difference  is  noted  between  the  captain's 
watch  and  the  ship's  chronometer  to  the  very  sec- 
ond. This  was  found  to  be  38  hours  and  two  sec- 
onds, which,  reduced  to  longitude,  equals  129° 
30'  30".  Each  ship  is  provided  with  an  instru- 
ment called  a  sextant,  which  measures  the  height 
of  the  sun  above  the  horizon  in  degrees,  minutes, 
and  seconds.     The  captain  of  the  ship,  knowing 


over  what  parallel  the  sun  is  vertical  each 
day  of  the  year,  sees  by  the  sextant  how  far 
from  the  vertical  he  is,  and  in  this  way  com- 
putes his  latitude,  which  on  this  occasion 
proves  to  be  47°  30'  north  latitude.  We  see, 
then,  that  by  use  of  accurate  time-pieces,  one 
to  measure  Greenwich  and  the  other  Pacific 
time,  the  exact  location  at  sea  can  be  de- 
termined. 

Distance  in  miles  requires  another  factor, 
as  degrees  of  longitude  are  not  of  the  same 
length  at  all  places  on  the  earth's  surface,  for 
the  length  of  a  degree  decreases  toward  the 
poles,  where  the  meridians  all  meet,  and  re- 
duces a  degree  of  longitude  to  zero.  Below  is  a 
schedule  in  sailor's  miles,  which,  we  must  bear  in 
mind,  is  the  unit  adopted  by  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey.  By  this  authority  the  value  of 
nautical  miles  is  declared  "  as  equal  to  one-six- 
teenth part  of  the  length  of  a  degree  on  the  great 
circle  of  a  sphere  whose  surface  is  equal  to  the 
surface  of  the  earth."  This  gives  the  nautical  mile 
a  length  of  6,080.27  feet  —  practically  800  feet 
longer  than  our  land  or  statute  mile.  Then  a 
nautical  mile  covers  1.1515  statute  miles,  and  a 
common  land  mile  equals  .869  of  a  geographic  or 
nautical  mile. 

The  following  table  helps  us  to  understand  the 
mathematics  that  the  sailor  uses  to  determine  his 
distance  from  shore  where  location  is  recorded: 


LENGTH   OP   A   DEGREE   OF   LONGITUDE. 
(In  nautical  miles.) 

At  0  degrees  latitude  (equator) 60.       miles. 

At  5  degrees  latitude 59.875  miles. 

At  10  degrees  latitude , 59.193  miles. 

At  20  degrees  latitude 56.487  miles. 

At  30  degrees  latitude 52.093  miles. 

At  40  degrees  latitude 46.088  miles. 

At  50  degrees  latitude 38.609  miles. 

At  60  degrees  latitude 30. 127  miles. 

At  70  degrees  latitude 20.608  miles. 

At  80  degi'ees  latitude 10.461  miles. 

At  90  degrees  latitude 0.       miles. 

That  night,  as  we  saw  the  sun  overcome  by  the 
seemingly  boundless  stretch  of  water  and  his  dying 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


9^ 


light  tinted  the  waves  with  variegated  and  ever- 
changing  hues,  we  tried  to  comprehend  the  full 
meaning  of  the  statistician  who  states  that  two- 
thirds  of  the  people  of  the  globe  live  in  lands  whose 
shores  are  washed  by  this  ocean.  That  more  than 
one-third  of  all  the  earth's  surface  is  covered  by 
this  ocean.  That  the  Pacific  is  not  only  more  than 
twice  as  large  as  the  Atlantic,  but  into  its  great 
basin  you  can  place  Asia,  Africa,  Europe,  Aus- 
tralia, North  America,  South  America,  and  all 
the  islands  of  all  seas,  and  still  have  a  body  of 
water  left  that  would  be  larger  than  both  the  Arc- 
tic and  the  Antarctic  oceans.  When  Balboa  waded 
out  into  its  depths  in  1513,  off  the  Central- Ameri- 
can shore,  and  took  possession  pf  that  sea  and  the 
shores  that  it  washed  in  the  name  of  Spain,  he 
little  knew  the  extent  of  the  empire  of  land  and 
water  that  he  had  seized. 

Bearing  to  the  southwest  for  ten  days,  we  early 
one  morning,  like  Roderigo  Triana,  "  sight  land." 
The  first  land  sighted  coming  from  the  north 
in  this  ocean  highway  is  Oahu.  Showers  become 
of  frequent  occurrence,  and  we  here  behold  our 
first  perfect  rainbow,  every  part  of  the  arch  clearly 
visible  in  bright  prismatic  hues.  We  later  learn 
that  the  islands  are  so  noted  for  these  beautiful 
rainbows  that  this  mid-Pacific  group  has  been 
nicknamed  the  "  Islands  of  Rainbows." 

We  now  pass  along  the  northwest  shores  of  Mo- 
lokai.  This  is  the  island  that  has  a  leper  settle- 
ment, the  colony  being  situated  upon  the  peninsula 
in  the  central  part  of  the  northern  coast.  There 
are  two  villages,  Kalawao  on  the  one  side  and  Ka- 
laupapa  on  the  other  side  of  the  peninsula.  This 
settlement  comprises  about  3000  acres,  and  was 
set  apart  for  the  lepers  in  1865.  From  all  the 
islands,  lepers  are  sent  to  this  colony,  where  skilled 
physicians  and  modern  hospital  service  give  the 
best  medical  aid  to  the  unfortunates,  afflicted  with 
this  incurable  disease. 

Our  steamer  rounds  the  Koko  head,  the  most 
southern   point   of   Oahu,    and  we   now   catch   a 


glimpse  of  the  cocoanut  groves,  sugar  plantations 
and  pasture-lands  that  fleck  the  shore-land,  while 
the  wealth  of  foliage  and  flower  bedecks  the  en- 
tire landscape  with  a  richness  of  color  freighted 
with  perfume  as  morning  breezes  waft  the  dewy 
fragrance  seaward. 

After  doubling  Diamond  Head  or  Leahi,  whose 
precipitous  sides  lift  its  crest  700  feet  in  air,  we 
receive  the  harbor  pilot.  With  him  came  the 
health  officer,  whose  business  it  is  to  see  that  all 
on  board  are  well.  Should  he  find  any  sick  with 
a  contagious  disease,  our  ship  would  be  anchored 
at  quarantine  island  until  there  was  no  danger  to 
those  on  shore.  These  native  Hawaiians  catch 
contagious  diseases  quite  easily,  and  every  pre- 
caution is  used  to  keep  out  contagion. 

Our  pilot  leads  us  at  half-speed  through  a  nar- 
row channel  made  by  a  large  coral  reef  offshore, 
which  forms  a  natural  breakwater  to  the  harbor. 
The  channel  is  carefully  buoyed  on  either  side,  to 
aid  the  ship's  pilot.  At  night,  with  their  safety- 
lamps,  these  become  floating  beacons  to  direct 
steamers  entering  after  nightfall.  Just  on  the 
other  side  of  the  coral  reef  is  a  thirty-foot  light- 
house, to  make  the  passage  still  more  secure. 

We  found  the  Honolulu  harbor  a  spacious  one, 
with  room  for  at  least  100  large  steamers  like  our 
own,  with  an  average  depth  of  90  to  100  feet.  The 
wharves  are  ample  and  very  substantial,  with  high 
coverings  to  shield  the  laborers  from  the  tropical 
As  our  steamer  moves  up  the  dock  to  her 


sun. 


pier,  numbers  of  Hawaiian  lads  swim  around  the 
bows,  crying,  "  A-lo'ha,  aloha."  (My  love  to  you.) 
The  passengers  please  the  boys  by  throwing  coins 
overboard  for  them  to  dive  after.  The  boys  show 
themselves  true  "  water  babies  "  by  their  remarka- 
ble skill  in  both  diving  and  swimming. 

The  gang-planks  are  let  down,  and  we  stand  on 
the  dock  of  the  commercial  port  of  the  whole  group 
of  islands  —  Honolulu.  We  find  this  city  to  be 
modern  in  every  respect,  with  30,000  inhabitants. 
Being  a  mid-Pacific  port,  steamers  of  all  commer- 


100 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Group  of  Natives  Eating  Poi,  Hawaiian  Islands. 

cial  nations  stop  here,  and  hence  it  has  become 
quite  a  cosmopolitan  city.  We  find  twelve  islands 
in  the  group,  but  only  eight  are  inhabited.  Their 
area  is  about  equal  to  the  State  of  Kew  Jersey, 
with  approximately  four  million  acres  of  land. 
When  Capt.  Cook  discovered  the  islands,  in  1778, 
he  estimated  the  natives  to  number  300,000.  To- 
day- the  census  reports  but  31,000  native 
Hawaiians,  while  half-castes,  Chinese, 
Americans,  Japanese,  British,  Portuguese, 
Germans,  French  and  Norwegians  make  up 
the  rest  of  the  110,000  people  on  the  islands. 

Prior  to  1819  these  Hawaiians  were  only 
barbarians,  victims  of  the  very  worst  super- 
stitions. It  was  American  missionaries  from 
!N^ew  England  who  Christianized  and  civi- 
lized these  island  people ;  and  for  this  reason, 
probably,  they  look  to  our  nation  as  their 
great  benefactor. 

In  the  early  days  each  island  had  its  own 
king,  but  King  Kamehameha  succeeded  in 
making  the  conquest  of  all  the  islands,  and 
established  the  government  that  existed  until 
the  republic  was  formed,  July  4th,  1894. 
The  Pali  of  the  ]^6ffi«tn- Valley  marks  the 
spot  where  the  Oahu  natives  made  their  last 


stand  against  Kamehameha,  over  which  precipice 
they  were  driven  to  their  death. 

We  take  a  Hawaiian  coast  steamer,  and  make  a 
hurried  trip  around  the  islands.  The  Hawaiians 
grow  the  taro,  a  root  cultivated  as  the  Chinese  do 
rice.  From  this  tuber  is  obtained  the  flour  from 
which  the  principal  native  food  is  made,  "  poi  "  — 
their  staff  of  life.  We  find  sugar  the  chief  product 
of  the  islands ;  the  average  yield  upwards  of  300,- 
000  tons  annually.  While  rice,  bananas  and  cocoa- 
nuts  are  marketed,  and  coffee  is  now  being  success- 
fully raised,  delicious  fruits  abound  and  apples 
grow  wild  here.  The  climate  is  so  nearly  ideal 
that  the  native  language  has  no  word  for 
"weather."  Beautiful  ferns, —  green,  pink,  red 
and  purple, —  palms  and  flowering  plants  are  seen 
on  every  side.  The  group  is  named  from  Hawaii, 
the  largest  island,  that  has  two  large  volcanoes.. 
One,  Mauna  Loa,  celebrated  the  Fourth  of  July, 
1899,  by  starting  a  prolonged  pyrotechnic  display. 


Avenue  of  Royal  Palnns,  Queen's  Hospital  Grounds,  Honolulu,  Hawaiian 

Islands. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


101 


Its  streams  of  lava  often  flow  down  the  sides  of  the 
volcano  for  many  miles. 

There  are  three  railroads  on  the  islands:  a  73- 
mile  railway  on  Maui,  a,  20-mile  railway  on  Ha- 
waii, and  a  39-mile  railroad  on  Oahu.  The  rail- 
roads are  chiefly  used  to  transport  freight  to  the 
coasts  for  the  steamer  trade.  This  coast  traffic 
employs  sixty  vessels,  that  have  direct  or  indirect 
connection  with  the  trans-Pacific  liners  at  Hono- 
lulu. 

The  rugged  shores  of  many  of  the  islands,  deep 
valleys  like  the  la'o  of  Maui,  walled  in  by  cliffs 
from  3000  to  6000  feet  high,  and  precipices  like 
the  Pali  of  Oahu,  together  with  many  craters  of 
extinct  volcanoes,  mark  the  islands  as  volcanic  in 
origin,  with  many  fringing  coral  reefs.  The  high- 
est point  in  the  whole  Pacific  region  is  Mauna  Loa, 
over  two  miles  high,  and  the  largest  active  volcano 
on  the  globe  is  Kalama,  whose  crater  is  nine  miles 
in  circumference.  Its  fiery  lake  of  lava  we  find  the 
natives  had  long  ago  named  Ha-le-mau-mau  (the 
house  of  everlasting  fire).  Hilo,  thirty-two  miles 
from  this  volcano,  is  the  second  city  of  the  island 
group.  Hawaii,  on  which  these  volcanoes  are  sit- 
uated, is  about  the  size  of  Connecticut. 

We  now  take  the  steamer  from  Hilo  to  Honolulu, 
where  we  purchase  tickets  for  Sydney  over  the 
Oceanic  steamer  line  via  Apia.  As  we  leave  these 
beautiful  islands,  rich  with  commercial  products, 
the  center  of  a  commerce  fast  nearing  200  millions 
of  dollars  annually,  a  land  where  illiteracy  is  well- 
nigh  unknown,  where  the  most  valued  elements  of 
tropic  and  temperate  climes  seem  sifted  from  the 
objectionable,  a  land  devoid  of  reptile  life,  and 
where  sunshine  seems  perpetual,  we  realize  that 
this  is  destined  to  be  a  mecca  to  travelers  and  a 
most  valuable  commercial  exchange  for  our  nation. 

We  are  now  under  the  British  flag,  and  steaming 
nearly  south.  As  we  cross  the  160th  meridian  we 
deflect  to  the  right,  and  for  2000  miles  through  the 
trackless  waste  of  waters  we  pass  without  a  glimpse 
of  land  or  an  incident  of  interest  save  one  —  when 


we  cross  the  Pacific  "  Doldrums  "  and  the  equator. 
At  longitude  161°  30'  we  reach  the  region  where 
the  northeast  trade  wind,  that  has  been  our  con- 
stant companion  for  more  than  twenty  degrees  of 
latitude,  gradually  loses  its  force,  until,  from  blow- 
ing at  a  rate  of  sixteen  to  eighteen  miles  a  day,  it 
does  not  blow  two  miles.  At  four  degrees  north 
latitude  we  enter  the  region  that  the  Spanish  have 
named  "  The  Doldrums  "  from  their  word  "  dolor- 
osa," meaning  tormenting.  Here  the  southeast  and 
northeast  trades  meet,  and  for  a  distance  of  300 
to  500  miles  they  neutralize  each  other.  This  is 
tormenting  to  sailing  vessels,  but  little  impediment 
to  the  modern  steamer.  In  some  places  in  the 
ocean  there  is  no  dividing-line,  and  vessels  can  run 
from  the  northeast  trade  at  once  into  the  southeast 
trade  wind.  This  region  has  been  called  the  equa- 
torial calms,  lying  on  or  near  the  equator.  The 
width  of  this  calm  belt  on  our  voyage  was  but  150 
miles ;  then  we  came  into  the  region  of  the  south- 
east trade,  that  gentle  wind  that  wafted  Magellan's 
vessel  across  the  ocean  in  1521,  and  led  him  to  call 
it  Pacific,  as  he  had  a  stormless  voyage.  These 
trades  being  constant,  gales  rarely  occur,  while  fogs 
are  almost  unknown.  Hence  these  regions  are  a 
source  of  delight  to  the  mariner,  giving  him  little 
anxiety  and  his  crew  a  measure  of  relaxation. 

We  now  experience  the  fun-sparring  time  of 
crossing  the  equator.  It  is  the  custom  on  this 
vessel  to  initiate  the  inexperienced  as  the  boat 
passes  from  north  to  south  latitude.  So,  blind- 
folded, we  "rode  the  goat,"  "fell  over  the  preci- 
pice "  into  the  seething  billows,  to  finally  receive  a 
shower  bath  —  Neptune's  blessing  on  his  newly 
christened  son.  For  two  hours  K'eptune  with  his 
trident  ruled  our  ship,  being  received  by  a  row- 
boat  off  the  bows  at  11  a.  m.,  and  with  garlanded 
trident  waving  in  the  air  he  disappeared  off  the 
stern  at  1  p.  m.  "  Neptune's  christening "  oc- 
curred at  165°  30'  W.  long.,  0°  latitude. 

After  an  eight-days  run  we  reach  Apia,  the  Sa- 
moan  port  of  entry  for  our  steamer.     Here  oc- 


102 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


curred  that  terrible  storm  that  destroyed  some 
valued  warships,  but  settled  an  international  wran- 
gle, March  16,  1889.  These  islands  are  2400  miles 
northeast  of  Australia,  consisting  of  thirteen  in- 
habited islands  and  several  islets.  The  natives  are 
superior  to  most  Pacific  islanders,  many  having  be- 
come both  civilized  and  Christianized.  England, 
Germany  and  the  United  States  drew  up  a  tri- 
partite treaty  in  1890,  establishing  a  joint  protec- 
torate over  these  islands.  The  new  treaty  of  1899 
granted  to  Germany,  Upolu,  Savaii,  and  the  islands 
of  the  group  west  of  171°  west  longitude,  and  to 
the  United  States  all  the  islands  east  of  171°.  The 
old  geographies  called  this  group  Navigator's  Isl- 
ands. The  poet  Stevenson  found  this  land  the 
"  Summer  isle  of  Eden,  lying  in  dark  purple 
spheres  of  sea,"  that  Tennyson  describes  in  his 
dream  of  Lotusland.  In  the  hills  north  of  Apia, 
Stevenson  had  his  home.  This  city  is  on  Upolu 
island,  and  is  one  of  the  most  prosperous  towns  in 
the  south  seas.  -- 

While  the  "  Alameda  "  is  delivering  her  agricul- 
tural implements  and  miscellaneous  dry-goods  and 
taking  on  cocoanuts,  we  take  a  detour  into  the 
island.  We  learn  that  none  of  the  islands  have 
railways,  canals,  navigable  rivers,  or  even  so  much 
as  a  wagon  route  or  a  caravan  trail.  Here  nature 
provides  food,  and  the  natives  "toil  not,  neither 
do  they  spin."  They  seem  to  -be  content  to  "  eat, 
drink,  and  be  merry."  While  not  industrious  as  a 
class,  the  Samoans  are  almost  a  perfect  type  of 
physical  manhood  and  womanhood.  They  are  a 
simple  and  lovable  people,  yet  bright,  and  quick  to 
learn.  We  arc  unable  to  find  a  Samoan  who  can- 
not read  and  write.  We  find  the  island  supplies 
itself  with  corn,  coffee,  and  sugar,  and  raises  for 
its  export  trade,  coffee,  cotton,  and  bread-fruit.  We 
return  to  our  steamer  under  a  canopy  of  flower- 
clad  trees  filled  with  singing  birds  and  freighted 
with  perfume.  We  have  been  told :  "  When  a  man 
goes  to  any  of  these  favored  islands  to  live,  no  in- 
ducement beyond  the  glitter  of  gold  will  ever  lure 


him  away.  Life  there  is  a  dream.  Sunshine  and 
flowers  and  birds  are  ever  in  the  air;  summer  is 
the  only  season ;  contentment  is  the  one  great  senti- 
ment that  seems  to  blossom  in  the  evergreen  trees 
and  plants,  and  to  spread  its  fragrance  every- 
where."   We  found  it  even  so. 

Twenty-five  miles  southeast  of  Upolu  we  cross 
the  171st  degree  of  longitude,  and  enter  the  waters 
controlled  by  the  United  States.  A  few  miles 
further  on  we  sight  the  island  of  Tutuila.  Here 
we  enter  a  land-locked  harbor,  approximately  four 
miles  long,  and  from  one-half  to  a  mile  wide,  and 
from  100  to  200  feet  deep.  Naval  experts  state 
that  the  whole  American  navy  could  find  safe 
anchorage  here,  while  the  Kearsarge  and  Kentucky 
at  the  entrance,  with  a  fleet  of  three  submarine 
boats,  could  keep  out  the  -world's  combined  navies. 
It  is  Pago-Pago,  the  finest  harbor  of  this  ocean  of 
good  harbors.  At  the  head  of  the  harbor  is  the 
native  hamlet  of  Pago-Pago. 

The  island  is  almost  divided  by  the  harbor,  being 
from  three  to  eight  miles  wide.  It  is  twenty-one 
miles  long,  and  contains  about  sixty  sugar  mills. 
It  is  volcanic  in  origin,  as  are  most  of  the  mid- 
Pacific  islands.  The  tallest  summit  rises  3000  feet, 
but  it  has  been  wasted  considerably  in  the  centuries 
the  volcano  has  been  extinct.  Between  the  sea  and 
the  mountains  is  a  fine  slope  where  the  natives  have 
their  farms.  Here  they  raise  cocoanuts,  yams, 
sugar  cane,  and  many  tropical  fruits.  There  are 
excellent  fish  found  in  the  harbor,  and  the  canal 
formed  around  the  island  by  the  coral  reefs  has 
five  openings  which  afford  five  good  reef  harbors. 

While  4000  natives  live  here,  Robert  Mackay 
declares  100,000  would  find  a  fruitful  dwelling- 
place  on  the  Island.  Notwithstanding  its  tropical 
situation,  Tutuila  has  a  healthful  climate  for 
Americans  as  well  as  Samoans.  A  system  of 
schools  has  recently  been  established  by  the  United 
States,  and  steps  taken  to  fully  develop  the  island. 

The  islands  of  Manna,  Oloosinga,  Ofoo  and  Rose 
lie  eastward  from  Tutuila,  only  one  affording  an- 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


103 


chorage  for  ships  —  northwest  coast  of  Manna, 
about  ten  miles  steaming  from  Pago-Pago. 

The  United  States  flag  was  raised  at  Tutuila 
April  17th,  1900,  bj  Commander  Tilly,  com- 
mandant of  the  United  States  naval  station  here. 
The  natives  signed  an  agreement  which  acknowl- 
edges United  States  authority  over  the  islands,  and 
contains  a  promise  to  obey  American  laws. 

We  visited  a  grove  of  bread-fruit  trees  while  on 
the  island.  The  tree  is  of  medium  height  and  size, 
and  has  large  leaves,  glossy  green  in  color.  The 
fruit  is  shaped  something  like  a  Hubbard  squash, 
and  about  the  size  of  a  medium  squash.  Many  eat 
it  raw,  but  the  Samoans  roast  it  as  our  grand- 
mothers used  to  roast  potatoes  —  in  the  ashes.  It 
tastes  something  like  bread  witli  a  small  amount  of 
sugar  in  it.  We  are  told  that  the  tree  has  fruit 
every  year  and  all  the  year  round.  It  constitutes 
the  staple  food  of  the  South  Sea  Islanders.  The 
timber  is  used  for  boats,  and  from  the  fiber  of  the 
inner  bark  of  the  bread-fruit  tree  a  cloth  is  made ; 
hence  the  tree  is  a  valuable  one  to  the  natives. 
Had  they  the  rain  tree  of  Africa  and  the  cow  tree 
of  South  America,  they  would  have  food,  drink 
(water  and  milk),  shelter,  and  clothing, —  satisfy- 
ing the  chief  wants  of  mankind. 

As  our  steamer  moves  out  of  the  harbor  we  are 
reminded  of  what  an  essayist  has  said:  "As  the 
traveler  sails  away  from  the  island  on  which  the 
white  moon  is  shining  down  so  peacefully,  a  feeling 
akin  to  homesickness  seizes  upon  him,  as  if  he 
could  not  bear  to  go  away  from  this  fairy-land  of 
nature,  back  to  the  hurry  and  noise  and  bustle  of 
civilized  lands." 

At  noon  the  next  day  we  reach  the  International 
Date  Line.  Theoretically  this  line  is  on  the  180th 
meridian,  but  practically  it  coincides  with  this 
meridian  for  about  half  its  distance  across  the  Pa- 
cific—  40°  K  to  about  5°  S.  latitude.  As  marine 
time  is  usually  reckoned  by  the  meridian  of  Green- 
wich, commercial  nations  have  tacitly  agreed  to 
reconcile  dates  at  sea  on  this  180th  meridian,  just 


half-way  round.  Hence  it  is  called  the  Interna- 
tional Date  Line.  One  other  reason  why  mariners 
selected  this  longitude  for  adjusting  dates,  could 
be,  that  this  meridian  is  nearly  in  the  central  part 
of  the  Pacific  and  passes  through  but  few  bodies  of 
land.  When  Alaska  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States  it  had  Asiatic  time,  but  now  the  date  line 
passes  west  of  the  Aleutian  Islands;  hence  it  de- 
flects to  the  west  of  the  ISOtli  -meridian,  so  all  the 
islands  may  have  the  same  time. 

The  Fiji  Island  group  is  crossed  by  the  180th 
meridian,  but  so  all  the  islands  may  have  the 
same  time  as  the  rest  of  the  British  possessions  in 
Polynesia,  the  international  date  line  is  made  to 
deflect  to  the  east  of  the  180th  meridian,  as  shown 
on  the  world  map  of  this  text. 

The  Spanish  traveled  west  from  America  to  dis- 
cover the  Philippine  Islands,  and  took  their  Span- 
ish-American date  with  them.  Although  there  was 
a  day's  difference  between  Manila  time  and  that  of 
its  nearest  commercial  neighbors, — Japan,  Borneo, 
Java,  and  China, —  the  Spanish  persistently  re- 
fused to  change  and  conform  with  Manila's  neigh- 
bors for  over  three  hundred  years.  Thus  the  inter- 
national date  line  was  made  to  bend  to  the  west 
60°,  to  place  Manila  east  of  the  line.  When  nearly 
all  Spain's  American  colonies  gained  their  inde- 
pendence, in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, the  Filipinos  had  to  look  to  their  neighboring 
coasts  for  trade.  Their  time  was  now  twenty-four 
hours  behind  their  commercial  neighbors.  Sabbath 
in  Manila  meant  a  work-day  in  adjacent  East  In- 
dies, and  this  confusion  of  dates  led  Manila  mer- 
chants to  demand  the  same  time  as  their  neighbors. 
Spain,  in  answer  to  this  request,  struck  December 
31st,  1844,  out  of  the  Philippine  calendar.  Thus, 
on  January  1st,  1845,  Manila  caught  up  with 
Asiatic  time. 

As  there  is  no  international  legislation  defining 
the  exact  location  of  the  international  date  line, 
the  position  is  not  given  exactly  the  same  by  all 
geographers.     All  the  possessions  of  the  United 


104 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


States  except  the  Philippines  have  the  same  day. 
Manila  time  is  about  eleven  hours  earlier  than 
"Washington  time.  When  the  steamer's  chronome- 
ter indicates  the  noon  instant,  the  whistle  blows 
and  all  watches  are  set  forward.  Members  of  our 
party  could  not  understand  just  why  and  how  this 
change  corrected  the  commercial  time.  We  made 
an  appointment  after  dinner  with  a  ship's  officer 
to  explain  this  to  us,  and  below  is  the  explanation 
that  he  gave  us  in  the  ship's  saloon  or  parlor  that 
evening : 

"  The  earth  in  one  rotation  passes  through  360 
degrees  —  an  entire  circle.  It  requires  twenty- 
four  hours  to  do  this;  hence  it  passes  through 
fifteen  -degrees  each  hour.  Then  for  every  fifteen 
degrees  that  we  sail  west  we  find  local  time  one 
hour  earlier.  While  people  say  they  have  lost  an 
hour,  remember  this  is  a  relative  statement,  for  of 
course  we  have  neither  gained  nor  lost  time.  Our 
day  seems  one  hour  longer,  and  we  find  our  watch 
one  hour  fast  for  every  fifteen  degrees  traveled. 
Going  east,  the  watch,  will  be  one  hour  slow  for 
every  fifteen  degrees  traveled.  Now  let  us  consider 
a  concrete  illustration  by  way  of  application. 

"  There  w-ere  three  brothers  in  St.  Louis  who 
resolved  to  practically  test  the  international  date 
line  problem  in  the  following  manner :  One  was  to 
travel  around  the  world,  going  east  via  New  York ; 
one  travel  around  the  world,  going  west  via  San 
Francisco,  and  so  time  his. journey  that  he  would 
meet  his  brother  on  the  180th  meridian ;  the  third 
brother  was  to  remain  at  home,  and  be  prepared  to 
compare  notes  at  the  close  of  year  with  the  globe- 
trotters. On  January  1st,  1897,  the  first  brother 
started  for  London.  When  his  steamer  reached 
that  port,  the  second  brother  started  for  the  180th 
meridian  via  San  Francisco.  When  brother  'No.  1 
reached  the  line  it  was  Monday,  and  the  log  of  his 
steamer  showed  the  double  record,  like  the  one  ours 
made  to-day.  Their  Monday  at  once  became 
Sunday,  marking  American  time.  Brother  No.  2 
reached  the  line,  coming  from  America,  with  a 


log  bearing  Sunday  date,  which  was  made  to  date 
ahead  to  Monday  to  agree  with  Asiatic  time.  Thus 
one  steamer  had  two  Sundays  and  the  other  had 
practically  no  recorded  Sunday  that  week.  On  the 
evening  of  December  31st,  the  three  brothers  met 
in  their  St.  Louis  home  and  compared  years. 
Brother  No.  1  had  a  record  of  366  days;  brother 
No.  2,  364  days;  and  brother  No.  3  a  record  of 
36.5  days  for  the  year. 

"  Custom  has  made  the  law  that  when  a  ship 
crosses  the  international  date  line  from  east  to 
west  its  log  shall  register  the  double  record  we 
recorded  to-day,  as  we  find  just  that  much  differ- 
ence between  American  and  Asiatic  Australian 
time.  Ships  crossing  the  international  date  line 
from  west  to  east  (from  Australia  and  Asia,  Amer- 
ica-bound) register  the  same  day  twice  in  succes- 
sion, as  brother  No.  1  in  the  illustration  counted 
his  Sunday  twice,  his  Monday  being  turned  back 
to  Sunday.  By  doing  this,  Asiatic  and  Australian 
time  is  at  once  converted  into  American  time. 
Thus  you  see  when  we  change  from  west  longitude 
to  east  longitude  we  also  change  from  the  time  of 
the  western  to  the  time  of  the  eastern  hemisphere." 

We  thanked  the  officer  for  his  concise  explana- 
tion ;  and  while  all  agreed  that  it  was  plainly  pre- 
sented, the  international  date  line  problem  was 
the  theme  of  discussion  for  several  days.  At  most 
any  hour  of  the  day  we  could  see  a  group  gathered 
in  earnest  discussion,  and  we  knew  at  once  the 
topic  was  the  "  lost  day  "  problem.  It  has  been 
agreed  that  the  application  of  the  United  States 
system  of  standard  time  to  the  commercial  world, 
with  Greenwich  time  belt  as  the  unit  of  the  time 
belts,  divided  like  ours  into  hour  divisions,  would 
be  more  convenient  and  much  less  perplexing  to 
the  world  at  large. 

We  are  now  in  the  very  central  portion  of  Poly- 
nesia, that  "milky  way"  of  islands  that  spreads 
out  for  thousands  of  miles  east  and  west  and  hun- 
dreds of  miles  north  and  south  in  the  south  Pa- 
cific.   Because  the  islands  vary  in  size  and  largely 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


105 


lie  in  groups  owned  by  many  nations,  they  truly 
are  "Poly"  or  many  lands.  Stretching  many 
thousand  miles  east  of  the  southern  portion  of 
the  Philippine  group  on  the  other  side  of  the 
equator  from  Polynesia,  are  the  much  smaller  and 
more  isolated  islands  of  Micronesia.  In  this 
archipelago  may  he  found  Wake  Island.  This  is 
a  small  island  taken  possession  of  by  Commander 
Taussig,  for  the  United  States,  in  January,  1899. 
It  is  2000  miles  west  of  Hawaii,  in  the  direct  line 
of  trade  with  Hong  Kong. 

Miles  west  of  Wake  is  a  group  of  fifteen  small 
islands  known  as  the  Ladrone  group.  The  largest 
and  most  southern  of  this  group  is  Guam.  This 
island  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Spain  in 
1899.  it  is  being  fitted  up  for  a  naval  and  coaling 
station,  and  will  be  a  station  on  the  new  Pacific 
cable  now  being  projected.  The  island  produces 
cocoanuts,  rice,  sugar,  bread-fruit,  and  bananas. 
Its  one  export  is  copra  (dried  cocoanut).  The 
island  is  about  100  miles  in  circumference. 

We  pass  to  the  east  of  the  Fiji  islands,  that 
were  the  last  of  the  South  Sea  islands  to  give  up 
cannibalism.  Many  of  the  natives  of  this  group 
have  substituted  dirt  for  human  flesh  &»  an  article 
of  food.  As  we  —  who  might  be  served  up  fried, 
broiled,  or  baked  —  think  of  it,  we  can  but  be 
glad  of  the  change.  The  dirt  chosen  for  food  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  volcanic  ash.  The  women 
of  the  islands  seem  to  especially  like  this  new  arti- 
cle of  food,  and  the  coolies  imported  by  the  Eng- 
lish for  laborers  are  said  to  eat  this  dirt  food 
greedily.  The  largest  island  of  this  group  is  Vita 
Leon  (Big  Fiji),  100  miles  long  and  60  miles 
wide.  On  this  island  is  the  harbor  of  Suva,  said 
to  be  one  of  the  largest  and  best  harbors  in  any 
ocean.  Here  is  logically  the  central  point  for  gov- 
ernment control,  and  at  no  distant  day  the  Fiji 
capital  will  be  located  at  this  point.  Freed  from 
malaria,  without  reptiles  or  vermin,  and  with  de- 
lightful southeast  breezes  and  a  mean  temperature 


of  80  to  82  degrees,  these  islands  are  capable  of 
great  agricultural  and  commercial  development. 

The  islands  were  annexed  to  England  in  1874, 
and  that  nation  is  developing  a  diversified  crop,  es- 
tablishing mills,  building  roads,  and  giving  the 
islands  all  the  elements  of  modern  civilization. 

After  we  cross  Capricorn  we  find  the  monotony 
of  sea  and  sky  forgotten  as  we  study  the  move- 
ments and  gracefulness  of  that  bird  of  nautical 
romance  that  is  now  seen  to  frequent  the  waters  — 
the  albatross.  It  seems  to  literally  sail  upon  the 
wind  in  any  direction,  as  scarcely  a  movement  of 
its  wings  can  be  discerned,  though  it  may  fly 
with,  across  or  against  the  wind.  So  swift  and 
powerful  is  its  flight  that  it  has  been  jocosely  re- 
marked that  "the  albatross  can  breakfast  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  dine  at  New  York."  It 
ofttimes  flies  so  near  the  water  that  shipwi*ecked 
sailors  have  been  able  to  reach  up,  catch  its  legs, 
and  be  dragged  to  a  floating  spar  or  place  of  safety. 
Hence  the  albatross  has  been  named  the  "sailor's 
friend." 

After  six  days  frqm  Samoa  we  reach  the  beauti- 
ful harbor  of  the  "]^aples"  of  New  Zealand  — 
Auckland.  This  is  the  metropolis  of  northern  New 
Zealand,  and  the  former  capital  of  the  country. 
This  region,  an  isthmus  in  the  northern  part  of 
North  Island,  is  rich  in  legends,  as  it  was  the 
"  fighting-ground "  for  centuries  for  the  natives. 
When  the  missionaries  came  here  in  1814,  human 
flesh  was  the  main  subsistence. 

We  find  that  this  is  the  most  remarkable  vol- 
canic region  in  the  world.  One  hundred  and  sixty 
miles  southeast  of  Auckland,  in  the  central  part 
of  North  Island,  are  the  geysers,  known  as  the  Hot 
Lake  District  of  New  Zealand.  Merchants  on 
Queen  street,  Auckland,  told  us  that  earthquakes 
in  1855  raised  their  coast-line  four  feet  for  miles 
up  and  down  the  coast.  They  also  said  that  a 
chain  of  supposedly  extinct  volcanoes  along  the 
backbone  of  the  islands  suddenly  became  active  in 


106 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


1886,  and  buried  many  entire  villages,  destroying 
all  the  villagers. 

We  learn  tliat  this  city  is  the  center  of  a  large 
timber  belt,  rich  in  trees  of  commercial  value. 
The  kauri  tree  is  the  pine  of  New  Zealand,  bear- 
ing somber  green  leaves  instead  of  needles.  It  is 
slow  of  growth,  requiring  800  years  to  mature,  but 
while  it  is  easily  worked,  it  has  a  close  grain,  is 
exceedingly  durable,  and  will  not  easily  split  nor  ' 
readily  warp.  Its  average  height  is  100  feet  and 
diameter  15  feet.  The  tree  yields  a  gum  that  is 
an  important  article  of  export.  It  is  found  five  ' 
or  six  feet  under  ground,  in  a  fossilized  form.  It 
is  the  process  of  years  that  causes  this  change, 
which  makes  it  of  commercial  value,  as  the  fresh 
gum  has  no  market.  The  fossil  gum  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  varnish. 

Fern  trees  thirty  feet  high  are  seen  beside  de- 
ciduous trees  and  plants  that  have  been  planted  by 
the  English  since  !N"ew  Zealand  became  a  recog- 
nized colony  in  1840,  three-quarters  of  a  century 
after  Cook  discovered  the  islands.  Here,  too,  we 
find  the  "sweet-scented"  manuaka,  the  fragrant 
veronica,  and  the  lofty  rimu  tree,  about  whose 
lofty  trunk  the  gigantic  rata,  a  veritable  boa  con- 
strictor, twines  the  Gordian  knots  nothing  can 
untie-  and  often  saps  the  very  life  of  the  tree. 
The  pride  of  the  Maoris  (the  natives)  is  the 
karaka,  with  its  rich  glossy  leaves. 

In  the  hills  of  both  North  and  South  Island  are 
rich  deposits  of  not  only  coal,  but  gold,  silver,  iron, 
manganese,  and  tin.  Our  geographies  tell  us  the 
exports  of  these  islands  are  wool,  gold,  and  frozen 
meats.  While  our  steamer  is  unloading  a  gas 
plant,  rifles,  shotguns,  revolvers,  and  "  ammuni- 
tion sufficient  for  a  brigade,"  to  say  nothing  of 
lawn-mowers,  reapers,  wagon-wheels,  coffee-mills, 
patent  medicines  and  kerosene,  all  brought  from 
San  Francisco,  we  go  over  to  the  American  con- 
sulate and  ask  our  consul  about  New  Zealand's 
exports.  He  says:  While  New  Zealand  is  in  ap- 
proximately the  same  latitude  south  that  Italy  is 


north,  yet  the  climate  is  like  England's,  and  all 
crops  of  the  temperate  zone  will  grow  here,  with 
many  tropical  plants, —  for  the  islands  are  well 
watered  and  have  an  abundance  of  rain.  The  offi- 
cial reports  for  recent  years  show  the  New  Zealand 
exports  to  consist  of  twenty  different  articles,  with 
an  average  total  of  45  millions  of  dollars  annually. 
The  highest  amounts  for  single  articles  are  wool, 
$21,000,000;  frozen  meats,  $6,500,000;  gold, 
$5,500,000;  kauri  gum,  $2,250,000;  butter,  $1,- 
500,000;  oats,  $1,250,000;  tallow,  $1,250,000; 
and  sheep,  $900,000,  annually.  Over  Y7  per  cent, 
of  the  exports  go  to  Great  Britain,  less  than  2  per 
cent,  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  15  per  cent,  to  the  rest 
of  Polynesia,  Australia,  Hong  Kong  and  China, 
and  5  or  6  per  cent,  to  the  United  States.  At  pres- 
ent New  Zealand  is  exporting  or  selling  25  per 
cent,  more  than  she  imports  or  buys.  She  imports 
24  million  dollars'  worth  annually  from  Great 
Britain  and  two  and  one-half  million  from  the 
United  States.  A  little  more  than  Y  per  cent,  of 
this  country's  imports  come  now  from  our  nation, 
a  large  part  of  our  sales  being  manufactured  goods, 
as  you  see  from  your  steamer's  cargo  now  being 
unloaded. 

"Places  where  New  Zealand  buys  her  goods 
at  present  rank  as  follows:  Great  Britain^  New 
South  Wales,  Victoria,  United  States,  Fiji, 
Queensland,  Germany,  China  (including  Hong 
Kong),  Tasmania,  South  Australia,  and  France. 
You  will  see  our  nation  stands  fourth,  and  we  are 
increasing  the  sale  of  American  goods  in  this 
quarter  rapidly. 

"  New  Zealand  is  a  great  country,  comprising 
more  than  100,000  square  miles  with  forty  million 
acres  of  good  tillable  land,  and  she  has  4000  miles 
of  coast,  with  many  good  harbors.  There  is  more 
land  in  New  Zealand  than  in  all  our  New  England 
States,  with  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland  and 
District  of  Columbia  thrown  in  to  make  good 
measure.  All  this  land  is  found  in  North,  South 
and   Stewart  islands,   separated  only  by  narrow 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


lOT 


straits.  Auckland,  with  her  60,000  people,  is  but 
one  of  several  ports  fast  coming  into  close  touch 
with  the  world's  trade.  Port  Nicholson,  port  of 
entry  for  Wellington,  the  capital ;  Ljttelton,  port 
of  entry  for  Christ  Church,  on  South  Island,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  tunneled  hill ;  Donedin, 
the  port  of  the  country's  most  important  gold 
fields ;  Greymouth  and  Westport,  the  coal  ports  of 
South  Island,  and  Invercargill  with  its  port  of 
entry,  Bluff  Harbor, —  these  are  the  leading  com- 
mercial centers  of  I^ew  Zealand.  Here,  1000 
miles  from  Australia,  45  days  from  London,  25 
days  from  San  Francisco  and  21  days  from  Hono- 
lulu, is  the  country  that  would  be  greatly  benefitted 
by  the  opening  of  the  Nicaragua  or  Panama  canal. 
Auckland  would  be  the  first  port  of  call  and  the 
last  of  departure  between  Europe  and  the  South 
Pacific  colonies,  and  freight  rates  would  be  greatly 
reduced." 

The  steamer's  whistle  told  us  her  cargo  was 
ready,  and  that  in  one  hour  we  would  depart. 
Thanking  our  consul  for  his  information,  we  hurry 
on  board  and  seek  the  hurricane  deck  while  our 
vessel  leaves  harbor. 

We  see  not  only  stately  steamers  of  many  na- 
tions, but  steam  ferries  gliding  this  way  and  that, 
screaming  tugs  flying  hither  and  thither,  tall- 
masted  sailing-vessels  in  line  at  the  piers,  and 
tiny  rowboats  darting  in  and  out  amidst  the  ship- 
ping of  the  bay.  It  is  always  a  busy  place,  we  are 
told,  for  Auckland  is  not  only  the  port  of  call  for 
the  Oceanic  line  steamers,  b,ut  it  is  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  Northern  Steamship  Company,  is  con- 
stantly visited  by  boats  of  the  Union  Steamship 
Company  and  the  New  Zealand  Shipping  Com- 
pany. Being  the  terminus  of  the  steam'ers  engaged 
in  the  Piji  trade  and  South  Pacific  island  trade 
Tinder  the  Union  Steamship  Company's  flag,  there 
are  vessels  of  this  line  coming  and  going  most  of 
the  time. 

The  dock  facilities  and  spacious  harbor  of  more 
than  110  acres  we  see  fully  taxed  with  all  this 


shipping.  While  we  stand  looking  at  the  lofty 
green-clad  hill  across  the  harbor  that  is  known  as 
Marine-Signal  Hill,  a  friend  calls  our  attention 
to  the  neat  trim,  liner  now  crossing  the  bay  toward 
the  "  swelling  bosom  of  the  great  Southern  ocean." 
We  learn  that  it  is  the  Moana,  especially  built  for 
the  San  Francisco  mail  service.  She  is  contracted 
to  deliver  the  mails  from  San  Francisco  to  Sydney 
in  twenty  days.  We  learn  that  her  route  is  Syd- 
ney, Apia,  Pago-Pago,  Honolulu,  San  Francisco, — 
5938  miles.  On  her  trial  trip  in  June,  1896,  she 
made  seventeen  knots  an  hour  with  light  draft,  and 
she  delivers  mail  both  ways  two  days  under  con- 
tract time. 

"  Cast  off  "  is  now  our  call,  and  with  an  energy 
felt  in  every  part  of  the  ship  our  engines  send  our 
vessel  steadily,  smoothly  through  the  harbor,  past 
the  breakwater,  out  into  the  ocean's  rolling  waves 
again.  We  steam  up  the  coast,  and  as  we  round  the 
north  capes  of  land  our  vessel  turns  to  the  west 
and  enters  the  New  Zealand  sea,  which  separates 
these  islands  from  Australia.  Her  good  harbors, 
clean  estuaries,  and  navigable  rivers,  induce  com- 
merce, while  Ker  position,  in  easy  reach  of  Austra- 
lia, India,  East  India  Islands,  China  and  Japan 
on  the  one  side  and  the  United  States,  Mexico  and 
South-American  republics  on  the  other,  with  the 
hundreds  of  fertile  islands  of  Polynesia  under 
her  commercial  sway,  are  destined  to  bring  New 
Zealand  into  prominence  in  the  world's  commerce. 
When  the  American  Yankee  harnesses  her  Suth- 
erland Falls,  near  the  Milford  Sound,  it  will  sur- 
pass our  own  Niagara  in  generating  power.  These 
falls  are  found  in  a  stream  that  springs  from  a 
glacier  on  Mount  Jutoko,  and  the  flow  is  very 
great  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  It  is  already  a 
Mecca  for  travelers,  as  the  wild  country  with  such 
a  rugged  landscape  forms  a  fitting  background  for 
this,  the  highest  fall  in  the  world, —  2000  feet 
capable  of  furnishing  mechanical  and  electric 
power  for  all  New  Zealand. 

We  are  now  steaming  through  phosphorescent 


108 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


water.  When  drawn  up  on  deck  and  placed  in  a 
dark  corner,  agitation  of  the  water  produces  scin- 
tillations of  light.  We  are  told  that  south  of  the 
fortieth  parallel  the  waters  of  New  Zealand  sea 
are  at  night  surpassingly  beautiful.  Vessels  from 
Wellington  to  Hobart  Town,  Tasmania,  pass 
through  this  region.  On  moonless  nights  the  water 
seems  to  have  given  place  to  liquid  fire.  A  shower- 
bath  with  this  water  sends  scintillating  particles 
all  around  one,  making  him  feel  warmer,  whether 
he  is  or  not.  The  microscope  shows  a  drop  of  this 
water  teeming  with  living  and  exceedingly  active 
animalculie, —  so  small,  that  were  it  not  for  the 
magnifying-glass  we  should  never  know  of  their 
existence. 

After  a  journey  of  1284  miles  through  this 
trackless  sea,  we  reach  Sydney,  the  metropolis  of 
New  South  Wales,  and  the  terminus  of  more  than 
a  dozen  steamer  lines,  giving  it  commercial  con- 
nection with  leading  seaports  of  the  world.  Bot- 
any bay,  with  its  lake-like  basin  defended  by  the 
Sydney  Heads,- — two  sentinel  cliffs  on  either  side 
of  the  entrance, —  and  with  emerald  islets  luxu- 
riant with  semi-tropical  vegetation  here  and  there 
in  the  bay,  is  the  pride  of  the  city,  and,  together 
with  Farm  Cove, —  an  indentation  around  which 
semicircle  liefe  the  city's  forty-acre  botanical  gar- 
den,—  excites  the  admiration  of  all  visitors. 

Sydney  we  find  has  a  first-class  naval  station, 
the  headquarters  of  the  British  fleet  in  Australia. 
We  pass  near  the  trim,  swift  cruiser  Mildura  as 
we  enter  Port  Jackson,  and  at  the  floating  light 
turn  south.  There  are  usually  from  nine  to  eleveji 
imperial  war  vessels  on  the  station.  The  great 
stone  quays  and  large  substantial  piers  that  now 
appear,  mark  the  near  approach  to  the  city's  water- 
front. We  find  Sydney  to  be  a  modern  city  about 
the  size  of  Cleveland,  Ohio.  The  city  was  founded 
in  1788,  and  named  after  the  colonial  secretary  of 
state  —  Viscount  Sydney.  It  became  an  incorpo- 
rated city  in  1842,  and  in  1855  a  branch  of  the 
royal  mint  was  established  here.     The  University 


of  Sydney  is  admirably  situated,  and  has  many 
fine  buildings.  It  was  the  first  university  founded 
in  the  southern  hemisphere.  Here  are  also  four 
large  denominational  colleges,  a  normal  school, 
many  public  and  private  schools,  besides  a  free 
museum,  an  art  gallery,  and  a  public  library  with 
more  than  100,000  volumes.  The  city  has  always 
held  high  rank  as  a  colonial  city  of  Great  Britain, 
on  account  of  its  complete  system  of  charitable 
and  educational  organizations,  substantial  public 
buildings,  and  its  enterprising,  public-spirited  cit- 
izens. As  w^e  stand  on  the  wharf  watching  the 
stevedores  unload  the  cargo  that  our  steamer 
brought  from  San  Francisco,  we  are  surprised  to 
see  400  tons  of  sewing-machines,  1000  barrels  of 
kerosene,  1000  tons  of  wire,  800  tons  of  steel  rails, 
400  tons  of  roll  paper,  with  hundreds  of  pianos 
and  organs  and  miscellaneous  articles  taken  from 
the  hold  and  loaded  on  drays  to  transfer  to  the 
wholesate  houses. 

The  hotels  of  Sydney  are  all  run  on  the  Euro- 
pean plan,  and  are  thoroughly  modern  in  their 
equipment. 

The  next  morning  after  our  arrival  we  took 
train  for  Melbourne,  where  the  present  capital  of 
the  new  Federal  Government  is  located.  At  the 
head  of  a  prolonged  inlet  of  Port  Jackson,  here 
called  the  Parramatta  river,  we  find  the  most 
noted  orange  district  of  New  S.outh  Wales.  The 
city  that  gathers  this  orange  trade  is  Parramatta. 

Our  railway  now  divides,  one  branch  going 
northwest  through  Bathhurst,  the  center  of  a  great 
wheat  region,  to  Fort  Bourke  on  the  Darling  river ; 
the  other  runs  southwest  to  Melbourne.  The  direct 
distance  between  Sydney  and  Melbourne  is  450 
miles,  but  as  the  railway  must  cross  the  Blue 
Mountains  and  make  a  detour  around  the  Aus- 
tralian Alps  of  Victoria,  the  distance  by  rail  is 
nearly  600  miles.  It  is  a  double  track  all  the 
way.  As  we  near  the  foothills  of  the  Blue  Moun- 
tains, we  observe  ragged  cliffs  of  considerable 
height,  but  crowned  with  forests ;   breaks  in  these 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


109 


Alpine  features  form  ragged  valleys,  well  watered 
and  quite  fertile.  The  summits  of  the  Blue  Moun- 
tains rarely  attain  4000  feet,  and  our  railroad 
leads  us  through  one  of  these  valley  passes  to  the 
interior,  that  is  pictured  in  most  geographies  as 
a  desert  waste  of  sand  and  salty  marches.  We 
ride  through  this  region  many  miles,  and  find 
that  wherever  the  land  has  been  cleared  and  irri- 
gated it  is  remarkably  fertile.  The  mountains  of 
this  continent  skirt  the  coast;  and  the  vast  in- 
terior, not  receiving  the  moisture  that  adapts  it  to 
agriculture,  has  scarcely  been  explored.  Here 
are  millions  of  acres  covered  with  a  low-growing 
bush,  and  termed  "  scrub."  Kussia  has  its  steppes, 
America  its  prairies,  and  Australia  its  scrub  — 
treeless  tracts  of  upland.  The  vast  western  prairie 
region  of  our  own  country  used  to  be  called  a  des- 
ert. Now,  this  same  region  raises  as  good  grain, 
fruit  and  vegetables  as  almost  any  other  section 
of  our  country.  So  it  may  be  with  central  Aus- 
tralia, now  given  up  largely  to  the  Negroid  na- 
tives, who  here  live  in  their  wild  free  state.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  irrigated  farms  along  the  border 
growing  a  great  variety  of  temperate  and  semi- 
tropical  plants.  When  it  has  been  fully  explored 
and  occupied,  central  Australia  may  prove  to  be 
a  great  bread-basket  for  all  this  South  Pacific 
region. 

As  we  cross  the  line  from  New  South  Wales 
into  Victoria  land,  we  observe  a  complete  change 
of  train  crew.  At  this  division  point.  Prof.  E.  M. 
Shelton,  an  American  educator  who  was  called  to 
this  country  by  the  British  Government  to  estab- 
lish agricultural  colleges,  enters  our  car.  We  ask 
him  the  significance  of  the  change,  and  he  says: 

"  Unlike  our  own  country,  the  provinces  or 
states  own  and  operate  their  railroads.  Before 
the  Federal  Government  was  organized,  each  state 
ran  its  line  largely  independent  of  all  others.  One 
might  have  standard  gauge,  another  a  narrow 
gauge.  This  prevented  interchange  of  cars,  and 
necessitated  unloading  and  reloading  freight,  les- 


sening profits  to  dealers  and  increasing  the  cost  to 
consumers.  New  South  Wales,  the  province  you 
are  just  leaving,  has  nearly  3000  miles  of  rail- 
way and  50,000  miles  of  graveled,  ballasted  or 
corduroyed  or  bushed  roads.  She  also  has,  to  aid 
her  commercial  needs,  nearly  14,000  miles  of 
telegraph  and  many  miles  of  tramway.  All  of 
these  are  under  the  direct  supervision  and  man- 
agement of  the  State  Government.  The  revenues 
of  this  region  come  largely  through  its  agricultural 
and  mining  resources,  as  but  little  manufacturing 
is  done. 

"  New  South  Wales  has  310,700  square  miles  of 
land.  One-fourth  of  this  is  under  forest,  while  in 
1899  less  than  two  per  cent,  was  under  crop.  Yet 
this  state  has  an  overland  trade  of  nearly  fifty 
million  dollars. 

"  The  first  effect  of  the  Federal  Government, 
which  leaves  the  railways  still  under  state  con- 
trol, will  tend  to  make  most  of  the  railways  in  the 
continent  a  uniform  gauge.  Then  you  can  load  a 
car  at  Sydney  and  ship  it  over  the  entire  mileage 
of  the  continent  — 14,500  miles. 

"  Each  state  has  officers  and  equips  its  own 
railways,  and  you  see  now  the  Victoria  crew  are 
taking  charge  of  our  train  and  will  run  us  into 
Melbourne." 

We  here  cross  the  river  that  forms  the  boundary 
between  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria  —  the 
Murray.  This  river  drains  an  area  of  half  a  mill- 
ion square  miles,  and  is  a  thousand  miles  long. 
It  overflows  its  banks  periodically,  at  which  time 
it  rises  from  twenty-five  to  forty  feet  above  its 
usual  level.  During  its  overflow  period  it  is  nav- 
igable within  ninety  miles  of  its  source.  It  has 
many  important  tributaries,  the  most  interesting 
one  being  the  Darling  river.  At  the  point  where 
our  railway  crosses  the  river,  it  is  not  more  than 
100  yards  wide,  and  shows  a  tortuous  channel 
which  is  characteristic  of  the  river  throughout  its 
course. 

The  scenic  part  of  Australia  lies  just  before  us. 


110 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


It  is  the  region  of  mountains  whose  rugged  peaks 
and  deep  valleys  make  the  European  think  of  the 
Alps;  hence  they  are  called  the  Australian  Alps. 
They  contain  the  loftiest  peaks  in  the  continent; 
Kosciusko,  7176  feet,  and  Mt.  Hotham,  6414  feet, 
being  the  highest  summits  in  the  range.  Here  are 
the  very  richest  gold  mines  in  Australia.  While 
gold  vs^as  first  discovered  in  New  South  Wales  in 
1851,  that  same  year  this  province  was  organized, 
and  named  for  the  queen.  It  has  produced  six 
times  as  much  gold  as  any  other  colony.  While 
mining  engineers  estimate  that  one-third  of  Vic- 
toria's twenty-three  million  acres  are  underlain 
with  gold-bearing  rock,  less  than  one-tenth  of  this 
estimate  has  been  developed.  Victoria's  wealth 
in  minerals  is  remarkable,  as  not  only  gold,  but 
silver,  copper,  tin,  zinc,  iron,  lead,  antimony,  co- 
balt, bismuth,  manganese,  coal,  sulphur,  kaolin 
and  bitumen  are  found  in  paying  quantities,  while 
rubies,  sapphires,  topaz,  garnet  and  agate  stones, 
to  the  value  of  many  pounds  sterling,  have  been  ob- 
tained here.  Her  granite  rivals  the  best  granite 
found  anywhere. 

Our  railway  now  threads  a  mountain-pass,  and 
again  we  are  on  the  coast  plain  which  encircles 
the  island  continent,  making  8000  miles  of  sea- 
front,  whose  retreating  plain  bears  few  indigenous 
plants ;  yet  these  few  are  peculiar  in  habit  as  well 
as  in  form,  and  grow  in  great  quantities.  The  soil 
is  adapted  to  cultivation,  and,  like  our  own  nation, 
Australia  is  capable  of  growing  all  food  crops  re- 
quired by  man  or  beast.  It  is  said  that  this 
island  continent,  with  one-half  its  area  in  the 
torrid  zone  and  one-half  in  the  south  temperate 
zone,  can  grow  any  plant  in  the  world.  We  now 
pass  through  the  Gippsland,  the  name  given  the 
region  south  of  the  Australian  Alps. 

While  in  the  northern  part  of  Victoria  a  quar- 
ter of  a  million  acres  are  farmed  by  irrigation, 
here  the  breezes  from  the  ocean  supply  an  average 
rainfall  of  thirty  inches.  It  is  winter  here,  but 
the  thermometer  at  the  station  just  passed  regis- 


tered 45  degrees.  The  train  porter  tells  us  that 
July  is  their  coldest  month,  but  even  then  the 
temperature  rarely  falls  below  freezing,  and  the 
snow-plow  is  not  used  on  their  whole  line  of  road, 
save  in  the  mountain-pass  through  which  we  have 
just  come. 

We  reach  Melbourne  too  late  for  business  hours, 
so  we  take  a  trolley-ride  through  its  ten  miles  of 
suburbs.  While  Sydney  is  the  oldest  city,  Mel- 
bourne is  the  largest  city  in  Australia. 

In  1835  a  small  colonizing  party  from  Tas- 
mania looked  over  the  swamp  and  uncleared  forest 
that  fringed  the  Yarra,  a  short  distance  above  its 
mouth,  seeking  a  site  for  a  commercial  city.  Some 
merchants  in  the  company  believed  this  river,  navi- 
gable for  large  vessels,  would  afford  good  water 
transit,  while  the  port  harbor,  afterwards  called 
Port  Phillip,  would  afford  safe  anchorage  for 
ocean  shipping,  thus  marking  out  the  natural  ad- 
vantages for  a  commercial  center.  New  South 
Wales  in  1873  recognized  the  hamlet  located  by 
the  Tasmanian  colonists,  and  named  the  citj'  Mel- 
bourne, in  honor  of  Lord  Melbourne,  the  British 
prime  minister  of  that  time.  When  gold  was  dis- 
covered in  Australia,  in  1851,  the  city  numbered 
23,000.  In  less  than  ten  years  (1857)  our  town 
of  23,000  became  a  great  commercial  port  of  100,- 
000,  and  known  throughout  the  world.  It  has  be- 
come the  Chicago  of  Australia,  unsurpassed  by  any 
colonial  capital  throughout  the  British  possessions, 
for  its  palatial  dwellings,  broad  avenues,  public 
buildings,  colossal  warehouses,  banks,  theaters, 
schools,  churches,  and  pleasure-grounds.  For 
many  years  one-fifth  of  the  revenue  raised  by  tax- 
ation was  expended  for  educational  purposes. 

The  University  of  Melbourne,  mth  other  uni- 
versities, together  with  libraries,  museums,  and  art 
galleries,  speak  of  the  culture  and  refinement  of 
this  far-away  capital,  so  freighted  with  commercial 
possibilities,  so  stirring  with  business  life.  Here 
we  find  a  Chinese  quarter,  similar  to  the  one  in 
San   Francisco.      Yonder   is   Baseball   Park,   not 


COMMERCIAL  OEOGRAPHY. 


Ill 


surpassed  for  utility  and  beauty  by  any  in  Amer- 
ica, the  home  of  baseball.  Over  there  in  a  block 
by  itself,  400  feet  back  from  the  avenue,  is  the 
public  library  building,  whose  interior  arrange- 
ments are  not  surpassed  by  either  the  Boston  Pub- 
lic Library  or  the  Carnegie  Library  of  Pittsburg, 
Pa.  We  find  Collins  Street  to  be  the  Michigan 
Avenue  of  this  Australian  Chicago,  although 
Burke  is  a  close  second,  with  its  well-paved  streets 
and  buildings  of  brick  and  stone,  of  modern  de- 
sign. 

Melbourne  has  rail  and  coast  connection  with 
the  rest  of  the  continent,  and  steamer  connection 
with  nearly  all  lands.  The  city  now  has  a  half- 
million  people. 

We  find  a  very  serviceable  ship  railway  that 
conveys  ocean  vessels  from  the  Head  of  Port 
Phillip  to  an  anchorage  in  Hobson's  bay.  This 
has  been  rendered  necessary  from  the  fact  that 
sandbars  obstruct  the  channel,  so  that  ships  draw- 
ing more  than  nine  feet  of  water  cannot  get  over 
the  bars,  while  vessels  drawing  twenty-four  feet 
of  water  can  come  up  Port  Phillip  as  far  as 
Hobson's  bay. 

We  learn  at  the  custom-house  that  through  this 
port  of  Victoria,  seventy  million  dollars'  worth 
is  exported,  and  1800  vessels,  representing  com- 
merce from  twenty-five  countries,  carrying  nearly 
two  and  one-half  million  tons,  enter  port  each 
year.  A  large  part  of  the  commerce  is  with 
Oceanica,  and  over  one-third  of  the  rest  is  with 
Great  Britain.  Our  nation  imported  from  Vic- 
toria 67f  thousand  pounds  sterling  and  exported 
to  Victoria  883|  thousand  pounds  sterling  in  1898. 

The  following  morning  we  visit  the  foreign 
office  of  the  Federal  Government  on  matters  of 
state,  and  find  the  minister  a  most  affable,  cour- 
teous officer,  who  thoroughly  believes  his  country 
has  a  great  future.  From  him  we  learn  the  fol- 
lowing facts  about  the  continent  of  Australia : 

"  This  is  the  only  continent  lying  wholly  in 
the  southern  temperate  zone,  and  its  geographical 


position,  surrounded  by  the  Polynesian  Islands, 
w^ithin  access  to  both  Oriental  and  Occidental  ports 
of  commerce  upon  the  Pacific,  it  has  a  world  com- 
merce at  its  very  doors. 

"Australia  is  four-fifths  the  size  of  all  Europe, 
while  it  has  only  one-seventh  of  the  population  of 
England  alone,  although  its  commercial  activity  is 
attracting  merchants,  miners,  manufacturers,  and 
farmers,  thus  rapidly  increasing  its  population. 

"  I^ature  has  given  the  continent  a  climate  that 
is  almost  unequalled  in  any  other  continent,  and 
any  plant  of  temperate  or  tropical  zone  soon  is 
acclimated  and  thrives  here. 

"  The  interior  receives  little  moisture,  but  a 
nutritious  grass  covers  the  eastern  part  of  this 
vast  plateau  region.  Here  is  the  great  pasture- 
land  of  the  continent.  Australian  wool  has  made 
Liverpool  the  largest  woolen  mart  of  commerce. 
While  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  world's  gold  supply 
comes  from  this  continent,  yet  the  mineral  products 
are  but  one-fifth  as  valuable  as  the  agricultural 
and  pastoral  products. 

"  Railways,  telegraphs  and  telephones  are  bind- 
ing us  more  closely  together  as  a  people,  and  our 
new  government,  established  January  1st,  1901, 
has  brought  '  The  Commonwealth  of  Australia ' 
into  existence  and  given  us  a  national  life.  On 
the  above-mentioned  date  England  yielded  up  all 
authority  over  our  household  matters,  only  reserv- 
ing such  maternal  supervision  as  we  are  all  glad 
to  enjoy.  Our  Commonwealth  consists  of  the  six 
States  of  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  Queensland, 
South  Australia,  Westralia  (a  new  name  for  West 
Australia),  and  Tasmania.  Some  conception  of 
their  size  may  be  gained  when  you  know  that  Wes- 
tralia is  larger  than  all  the  United  States  east 
of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  rivers.  New  South 
Wales  equals  the  area  of  the  States  bordering  your 
Great  Lakes.  Victoria  would  cover  Minnesota, 
and  Tasmania,  West  Virginia.  Australia's  popu- 
lation is  not  equal  to  the  population  of  the  United 
States  in  1790. 


112 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


"  The  features  of  the  government  consist  of  three 
departments,  like  your  own  —  executive,  legisla- 
tive, and  judicial.  The  executive  is  vested  in  the 
Governor-General,  appointed  by  the  British  sov- 
ereign (who  has,  however,  no  active  part  in  the 
administration),  and  cabinet.  The  cabinet,  un- 
like the  American,  is  chosen  from  Parliament  to 
represent  the  majority  sentiment  in  that  body  in 
the  ministry.  Whenever  this  policy  is  voted  down 
they  give  place  to  a  new  cabinet,  a  successful  prin- 
ciple long  tried  in  English  politics.  The  legisla- 
tive department  is  vested  in  a  Parliament,  which 
consists  of  a  Senate  and  a  Chamber.  The  Senate 
consists  of  six  members  from  each  State,  chosen 
by  popular  vote,  to  serve  for  a  term  of  six  years. 
The  Chamber  consists  of  seventy-two  members, 
elected  in  the  same  way  you  elect  Representatives 
to  Congress,  on  the  basis  of  population,  for  a  term 
of  three  years.  The  Judiciary  Department  is  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  former  colonial  courts,  with 
power  similar  to  your  own  federal  courts. 

"  The  federal  capital  is  to  be  located  in  a  tract 
ten  miles  square,  under  exclusive  jurisdiction  of 
the  Federal  Government,  like  your  District  of  Co- 
lumbia. This  territory  will  be  within  'Eew  South 
Wales,  but  must  be  selected  at  least  100  miles  from 
Sydney.  Until  the  permanent  capital  shall  be  es- 
tablished. Parliament  will  sit  at  Melbourne.  Each 
State  controls  the  unoccupied  public  domain  within 
its  borders,  and  its  legislature  will  also  control  and 
manage  the  lines  of  railroad  within  its  borders, 
while  the  Federal  Government  operates  the  post- 
offices  and  the  telegraph  and  telephone  service  of 
the  republic." 

We  thank  the  minister  for  his  courtesy,  and 
return  to  Sydney  by  coast  steamer,  560  miles. 
English,  French,  German,  Japanese  and  Ameri- 
can steamer  lines  connect  Melbourne  with  the  rest 
of  the  commercial  centers  of  the  world.  Across 
Bass  Strait  lies  the  State  of  Tasmania,  the  Van 
Diemen's  Land  of  the  old-time  geography.  Its 
capital,  Hobart  Town,  is  on  a  bay  in  the  southern 


part  of  the  island,  450  miles  south  of  Melbourne. 
Near  this  capital  city,  twenty  miles  inland,  we 
are  told,  is  a  forest  of  remarkable  gum-trees,  simi- 
lar in  size  to  the  big  gum-trees  of  the  Fernshaw 
mountain  district  of  the  Australian  continent. 
Statistics  tell  us  the  largest  tree  known  to  man  is 
a  chestnut  tree  near  the  base  of  Mt.  -i:Etna,  Sicily. 
It  measures  190  feet  in  circumference.  The  cy- 
press tree  near  Oaxaca,  Mexico,  that  Humboldt 
measured  in  1855,  is  believed  to  be  the  oldest  tree. 
He  recorded  a  measurement  of  126  feet  in  circum- 
ference and  382  feet  between  the  outspread 
branches.  The  largest  tree  in  the  United  States 
is  found  near  Bear  Creek,  California.  This  tree 
measures  140  feet  in  circumference.  One  of  the 
gum-trees  of  the  Fernshaw  district  that  had  fallen 
was  measured  by  a  government  survey,  and  its 
length  was  found  to  be  474  feet.  The  Tasmania 
gum-trees  are  fully  as  large,  averaging  from  300 
to  400  feet  in  height  throughout  the  forest,  and 
many  are  found  80  feet  in  circumference.  Fern 
trees  are  often  found,  with  American  native  fruit 
trees,  while  fragrant  yellow  gorse  and  scarlet  ger- 
aniums fringe  the  roads  of  Tasmania  with  almost 
impenetrable  hedges. 

We  steam  up  the  coast  to  Sydney,  where  we 
collect  our  gathered  relics  and  select  the  steamer 
that  shall  take  us  on  our  journey  northward  to 
Asia.  After  consulting  sailing-cards,  prices,  etc., 
we  decide  that  the  Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha,  of  the 
Japan  Mail  Steamship  line,  gives  us  just  the  route 
we  want,  and  purchase  a  ticket  to  Kobe,  first  class, 
for  £37  10s.  The  second  cabin  on  the  same 
steamer  costs  £26  10s.  This  steamer  does  not 
leave  Melbourne  until  August  20th;  arrives  at 
Sydney  on  the  23d,  and  clears  for  Asia  on  the 
29  th.  As  it  will  be  several  days  before  we  sail, 
we  divide  our  time  between  the  American  consul- 
ate and  the  botanical  gardens.  At  the  gardens  we 
see  types  of  all  the  principal  plants  of  the  world ; 
but  the  10,000  native  species  of  plants  found  in 
Australia,  many  of  this  number  found  nowhere 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


113 


else,  are  of  special  interest  to  us.  We  notice  that 
few  fruits  and  edible  roots  and  almost  no  cereals 
are  found  among  these  native  plants.  To  see  the 
leaves  hanging  vertically  and  trees  shedding  their 
bark  instead  of  their  leaves,  seems  as  odd  to  us  as 
it  does  to  see  stone-fruits  with  the  stone  on  the 
outside  instead  of  in  the  center  of  the  fruit.  The 
bottle  tree  with  its  "junk-bottle"  trunk  contain- 
ing good  water,  the  South  Sea  myrtle  with  its  star- 
spangled  blooms,  the  styphelia  with  its  green  flow- 
ers, the  musk  tree  exhaling  from  leaf  and  bark  a 
peculiar  sweet  odor,  and  the  she-oak  tree  emitting 
a  shrill  wailing  sound,  though  not  a  breath  of  wind 
stirs  twig  or  leaf,  are  as  peculiar  to  the  plant 
world  as  the  kangaroo,  emu,  bower  bird  and  orni- 
thorhynchus  are  to  the  animal  world.  More  than 
100  species  of  eucalypti  (a  member  of  the  myrtle 
family)  are  found  in  the  native  plants.  The 
acacias  constitute  the  next  largest  family  in  the 
Australian  plant  list.  This  garden  shows  the 
kangaroo  grass,  that  is  so  tall  that  it  easily  con- 
ceals a  man  on  horseback.  It  also  has  an  innu- 
merable number  of  brilliant  flowering  plants,  the 
giant  lily  being  an  object  of  great  beauty. 

Consul  Bell  informs  us  that  for  the  twelve 
months  closing  June  30th,  1901,  the  United  States 
exported  to  Oceanica  35^  million  dollars'  worth 
and  imported  11^  million  dollars'  worth  of  mer- 
chandise; our  commerce  with  Australia  being  12^ 
million  dollars  greater  than  with  the  continent  of 
Africa  for  the  same  period.  He  told  us  that  stat- 
isticians declare  the  commerce  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  to  be  equal  to  about  20  pounds  ster- 
ling per  capita  per  annum.  He  has  determined 
the  commerce  of  Australia  to  be  fully  40  pounds 
sterling  per  capita  per  annum,  with  almost  unlim- 
ited resources  before  her. 

He  told  us  that  Australia  is  to-day  the  greatest 
sheep-  and  wool-producing  country  in  the  world, 
having  more  than  100  million  head  of  sheep. 
Nine-tenths  of  the  wool  is  sent  to  Liverpool.  The 
flocks  can  live  in  the  open  air  the  year  round; 


the  amount  of  rainfall  alone  determining  the  limit 
of  pasturage.  Within  the  last  ten  years  Aus- 
tralia has  developed  meat  refrigeration,  and  now 
(1901)  surpasses  all  competitors  in  this  industry. 
Ranchmen  state  that  the  cost  of  killing  the  sheep, 
freezing,  shipping  and  selling  the  mutton  in  Lon- 
don does  not  exceed  three  to  four  cents  per  pound. 

South  Australia  and  Victoria  raise  the  wheat 
for  the  continent,  while  they  provide  it  also  with 
grapes,  raisins,  and  wine.  Victoria  leads  in  gold 
exports,  having  mined  more  than  six  times  as  much 
as  any  other  colony  since  its  discovery  in  1851. 
New  South  Wales  leads  in  silver,  copper,  iron, 
and  coal.  (The  coal-fields  are  twice  the  area  of 
the  coal-beds  of  the  British  Isles.)  Tasmania 
leads  in  the  production  of  tin.  The  mineral  wealth 
is  very  great,  the  agricultural  and  animal  products 
quite  large,  but  the  manufacturing  industries  are 
yet  in  their  infancy.  Hence  Australian  exports 
are  the  products  of  her  mines,  farms,  and  pastures. 
She  sends  coal  even  to  our  Pacific  coast,  although 
the  rich  beds  of  coal  lately  opened  in  Washington 
will  tend  to  lessen  the  sale  of  Australian  coal  in 
our  Pacific  States.  The  imports  of  the  continent 
are  largely  the  industrial  articles  manufactured 
in  other  lands,  80  per  cent,  being  from  Great 
Britain.  Our  consul  tells  us  that  while  the  coast 
and  foreign  trade  of  the  Australian  colonies  was 
two  and  one-half  million  dollars  in  1825,  for  the 
last  few  years  it  has  amounted  to  more  than  one- 
half  billion  of  dollars  annually. 

On  the  evening  of  the  28th  we  make  ourselves 
at  home  in  our  staterooms,  directly  amidships  in 
the  N.  Y.  K.  Australian  liner  Yawata  Maru.  We 
find  that  this  liner  is  a  new  steel  steamer  that  was 
built  on  the  Clyde,  under  special  survey  to  Lloyd's 
highest  class,  and  fitted  in  accordance  with  the 
Japanese  Government  rules  especially  for  the  Aus- 
tralian service.  Her  commodious  staterooms  for 
first-class  passengers  have  all  the  modern  improve- 
ments, and  are  placed  amidships  on  the  upper  deck, 
which  admits  of  perfect  ventilation,  so  essential  in 


114 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


tropical  climates.  Above,  on  the  bridge  deck,  is 
the  handsome  dining-saloon,  fitted  with  electric 
fans  and  lights.  This  steamer  is  a  4000-ton  vessel, 
fitted  with  triple-expansion  engines,  and  has  a 
recorded  average  speed  of  fifteen  knots  an  hour. 

At  10  o'clock  in  the  forenoon  of  the  31st  we 
reach  Moreton  bay,  the  harbor  of  Brisbane,  500 
miles  north  of  Sydney.  This  bay  is  a  sheet  of 
water  thirty  miles  long  and  six  to  eight  miles  wide, 
inclosed  between  two  long  sandy  islands  and  the 
mainland.  Hidden  by  the  mangrove  swamps  skirt- 
ing the  coast  is  the  mouth  of  the  Brisbane  river, 
and  twenty-four  miles  up  this  river  is  the  capital 
city  of  Queensland,  surrounded  by  banana  groves, 
cotton-fields,  orange  orchards  and  sugar  planta- 
tions. The  tulip  tree,  rosewood,  sandalwood  and 
satinwood  trees  adorn  the  streets  of  the  capital 
city,  while  the  palm  supplants  the  eucalyptus  tree. 

Queensland  practically  supplies  Australia  with 
her  bananas,  while  her  great  sugar  plantations, 
which  are  mostly  north  of  the  tropic,  yield  more 
than  100,000  tons  of  sugar  annually,  and  the  in- 
creasing acreage  of  cane  promises  a  much  greater 
yield  for  the  future. 

After  an  exchange  of  cargo  we  steam  up  the  east 
coast  to  our  next  port  of  call  —  Townsville,  750 
miles  northwest  of  Brisbane.  This  city  is  the 
coast  terminus  of  a  railway  connecting  the  pastoral 
settlements  of  the  better  parts  of  the  tableland  in- 
terior with  the  foreign  and  coast  markets  through 
Townsville.  Back  from  the  coast  a  short  dis- 
tance, between  Brisbane  and  Townsville,  is  a  moun- 
tain of  almost  solid  gold  ore.  This  is  Mt.  Morgan 
mine,  and  is  reported  to  be  one  of  the  very  richest 
mines  in  the  world. 

We  have  been  passing  through  the  coral  sea  for 
several  hundred  miles.  From  near  Great  Sandy 
Island  wending  northward  stretch  the  Great  Bar- 
rier Beefs  of  Australia.  This  is  said  to  be  the 
greatest  extent  of  coral  reefs  known  to  man.  The 
passage  between  the  reefs  is  dangerous  at  places, 
and  at  Cape  Tribulation  there  is  scarcely  room  for 


the  safe  passage  of  a  vessel  between  the  reef  and 
the  mainland.  Farther  north  the  reef  stretches 
out  again  to  sea,  extending  north  across  the  east 
portion  of  Terres  Strait.  After  three  days'  sailing 
we  reach  Thursday  Island,  off  the  northern  point 
of  the  Cape  York  peninsula. 

While  our  ship  is  preparing  for  its  eight  days' 
run  to  Manila,  we  take  a  stroll  over  the  island. 
To  the  south  is  the  continent  we  have  just  left 
To  the  north  lies  the  second  largest  island  on  the 
globe  —  New  Guinea,  which  is  larger  than  Texas, 
our  country's  largest  State,  by  many  thousand 
square  miles.  Seventy  thousand  square  miles  in 
the  northern  section  of  the  southeastern  part  of 
the  island  is  now  called  Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land, 
and  has  been  a  colony  of  Germany  since  1884. 
The  southern  section  of  the  southeastern  part  — 
90,000  square  miles  —  was  declared  under  British 
protection  in  1885,  and  became  a  colony  of  Great 
Britain  in  1888.  The  rest  of  the  island  is  a  colony 
of  Holland.  The  island  is  about  360  miles  wide 
and  1300  miles  lang.  Its  natives  are  Papuans, 
the  most  barbarous  savages  in  the  Pacific.  This 
island,  together  with  the  groups  of  small  islands 
that  lie  to  the  southeast  and  east  of  New  Guinea 
inhabited  by  Papuans,  marks  Malanesia,  a  name 
meaning  ^-  islands  of  the  blacks." 

A  growing  commerce  with  the  mother  countries 
and  with  Queensland  and  New  South  Wales  is 
developing  prosperous  trading  stations  and  estab- 
lishing plantations  which  are  worked  by  the  Ori- 
ental laborers  acclimated  to  the  heat  of  the  tropics. 

On  our  stroll  we  were  fortunate  enough  to  get 
acquaintc  1  with  Mr.  James  Clark,  who  owns  and 
operates  a  pearl  farm  of  5089  square  miles,  sit- 
uated on  the  strait  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
York  peninsula.  In  the  Orient  he  is  known  as 
"  the  king  of  the  pearl-fishers."  In  answer  to  our 
questions  he  said  that  he  had  been  engaged  in  pearl- 
fishing  for  ten  years.  With  proper  intelligence 
in  the  selection  of  a  place,  Mr.  Clark  said  one 
can  raise  pearls  and  pearl-shells  as  easily  as  he  can 


COMMERCIAL  QEO  GRAPH Y. 


115 


common  oysters.  In  1897  he  stocked  his  farm 
with  150,000  pearl  oysters,  obtained  in  many  in- 
stances far  out  at  sea.  His  experience  has  taught 
him  that  shells  attain  the  greatest  size  in  shallow 
water.  He  ships  his  pearls  to  London  in  his  own 
vessels.  He  employs  1500  men  (250  Leing  divers) 
and  250  vessels  to  harvest  his  crop  of  pearls.  Each 
year's  catch  runs  from  $250,000  worth  to  five 
times  that  amount.  Surely,  we  said,  this  is  the 
queerest  "  farming "  we  have  yet  heard  of.  Mr. 
Clark  smiled,  and  told  us  that  quite  a  number  of 
smaller  but  successful  farms  were  being  "  worked  " 
across  in  New  Guinea. 

The  long  blast  of  our  whistle  calls  us  aboard, 
and,  bidding  the  pearl-king  good-by,  we  hurry  on 
deck.  We  now  enter  the  East-Indian  Archipelago, 
that  wonderful  system  of  islands,  the  home  of 
volcanoes,  earthquakes,  typhoons  and  monsoons, — 
yet  a  great  storehouse  of  spices,  tropical  fruits, 
vegetable  drugs  and  minerals  for  all  nations.  Here 
is  the  home  of  the  Malay,  that  peculiar  brown 
people  who  work  only  enough  to  keep  them  from 
starving,  get  along  with  as  little  clothing  as  possi- 
ble, and  take  their  food  largely  as  nature  provides 
it  for  them.  This  region  has  been  their  home  for 
more  than  2000  years. 

We  steam  through  the  group  of  islands  in  the 
Banda  sea,  and  notice  their  shores  fringed  with 
cocoanut  palms  and  dense  jungles  of  luxuriant 
tropical  vegetation.  Here  the  nutmeg  and  mace 
of  commerce  grow  in  abundance.  The  kernel  of 
the  fruit  is  the  nutmeg  and  the  outside  covering  of 
the  fruit  forms  the  mace. 

As  our  vessel  goes  through  the  Molucca  Pass  we 
fee  what  seem  to  be  great  hop-yards  on  the  islands. 
Our  friend  informs  us  that  these  are  pepper  vine- 
yards. The  vines  are  planted  beside  stumps  or 
trained  upon  poles  stuck  upright  in  the  ground. 
The  vines  begin  to  bear  during  the  third  year, 
and  sometimes  yield  two  crops  a  year,  a  single 
plant  often  producing  a  pound  of  pepper  at  each 
crop.     Some  of  the  berries  are  picked  while  green. 


and  when  drying  turn  black.  This  constitutes  the 
black  pepper  of  commerce.  When  the  fruit  is  ripe 
the  white  pepper  is  obtained.  When  picked  the 
berry  is  fiery  red  in  color,  but  when  soaked  in 
water  this  red  skin  falls  off  and  leaves  the  white 
pepper  of  commerce.  Hence  black  pepper  and 
white  pepper  can  both  be  obtained  from  the  same 
plant. 

We  now  leave  the  land  of  the  Southern  Cross, 
pass  through  the  phosphorescent  waters  of  the 
Archipelago  "  across  the  line "  into  the  !N'orthern 
Hemisphere,  ruled  by  the  ISTorth  Star  and  its 
circumpolar  constellations.  Here  at  the  equator, 
in  the  "  summer  seas,"  the  sun  rises  and  sets  at 
the  same  hour  each  day,  all  the  year  round;  the 
trees  are  always  green,  and  filled  with  thousands 
of  birds  of  many  different  hues  and  carols  of  song. 
Flowers  are  ever  in  bloom,  and  it  is  Foutth-of- 
July  weather  the  whole  year  through. 

Commercial  statistics  show  us  that  we  have 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  East  India  supplies, 
yet  in  1900  they  sent  us  seventy-three  million 
dollars'  worth  of  imports;  thirty  million  dollars' 
worth  of  food  products;  tin,  ten  million;  drugs, 
chemicals  and  dyes,  six  million ;  and  the  rest  con- 
stituted a  miscellaneous  cargo. 

On  September  12th  we  reach  the  pearl  fisheries 
of  the  Sulu  Islands,  the  southern  part  of  the 
largest  island  group  in  the  Archipelago, —  the 
Philippines.  These  islands  extend  in  a  long  line 
through  twenty  degrees  of  longitude,  and  comprise 
2000  islands,  great  and  small.  The  islands  are  of 
volcanic  origin,  and  vary  from  a  few  miles  to 
41,000  square  miles  in  area,  while  the  total  for 
the  group  approximates  the  area  of  New  England, 
Delaware,  New  Jersey,  and  Ohio. 

On  the  morning  of  the  14th  we  steam  past  Cor- 
regidor  and  enter  the  bay  of  Manila,  famous  as 
the  scene  of  the  greatest  naval  victory  of  modern 
times.  As  we  pass  over  the  placid  waters  of  the 
bay  whose  shipping  now  brings  to  its  capital  city 
the  commerce  of  many  lands,  we  instinctively  re- 


116 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


A  Public  Laundry  and  Bath,  Manila,  P.  I. 

peat  the  lines  of  the  prairie  poet  of  our  Central 
States,  dedicated  to  the  battle  of  Manila: 

"  O  Dewey  was  the  morning 
Upon  the  first  of  May, 

And  Dewey  was  the  Admiral  /^ 

Down  in  Manila  Bay  ; 
And  Dewey  were  the  Regent's  eyes, 
Those  heavenly  orbs  of  blue. 
And  do  we  feel  discouraged  ? 
We  do  not  think  we  '  dew.'  " 

Our  steamer  is  to  stay  twenty-four  hours 
at  the  port  of  Manila,  and  we  go  on  shore 
to  hear  our  national  hymn  sung  by  the  Fili- 
pino school-children  in  their  native  tongue, 
as  well  as  in  English,  and,  best  of  all,  to 
again  walk  under  the  Stars  and  Stripes.  The 
city  of  Manila  is  becoming  a  great  commer- 
cial center,  with  a  rapidly  growing  com- 
merce. It  has  just  come  through  the  Span- 
ish-American and  insurgents'  wars,  of  which 
it  was  the  center,  well-nigh  destroying  its 
commerce;  yet  this  city  in  1900  exported  to 
the  United  States  alone,  five  million  dollars' 


worth  of  hemp  and  fifty  million  pounds  of 
sugar.  Iloilo  and  Cebu  are  important  sea- 
port to"wns.  We  find  that  in  the  Philippines, 
as  in  nearly  all  other  points  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  Chinese  traders  do  a  large 
share  of  the  wholesale,  retail  and  banking 
business.  While  the  whites  numbered  in 
1900  but  25,000,  exclusive  of  American  sol- 
diers, the  Chinese  numbered  50,000,  the  ma- 
jority of  whom  were  in  mercantile  business 
of  some  kind.  The  natives  are  divided  into 
eighty  tribes,  speaking  as  many  dialects,  and 
number  between  eight  and  ten  million  souls. 
They  are  quick  to  learn,  are  generally  more 
energetic  than  their  Malay  cousins  of  the 
other  island  groups,  and  are  proving  them- 
selves desirous  of  acquiring  the  advantages 
of  modern  civilization.  Manila,  as  the  me- 
tropolis of  the  islands,  has  an  advantageous 
location,  and  is  now  a  city  of  200,000. 
At  the  custom-house  we  learn  that  the  exports 
are  chiefly  Manila  hemp,  sugar,  copra  (dried  co- 


Looking  toward  the  City  from  the  Lighthouse, —  Pasig  River  Entrance, 

Manila,  P.  I. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


117 


coanut),  tobacco,  and  rice.  The  first- 
named  article  comprises  nearly  one- 
third  the  value  of  all  the  exports, 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
purchasing  the  entire  exported  crop. 

The  most  important  imports  are 
ginghams,  fruits,  yarns,  ironware, 
coal,  and  petroleum.  The  bulk  of  the 
trade  is  with  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
Spain,  America,  and  Japan,  Manu- 
facturing plants  are  being  established 
to  work  up  the  hemp,  silk  and  cotton 
fabrics,  and  make  furniture  and  ag- 
ricultural implements. 

Manila  is  a  port  of  call  for  many 
American,  Asiatic  and  European 
transpacific  steamer  lines,  and  is  con- 
nected with  Hong  Kong  by  cable. 
Telegraphs  and  railways  are  being 
built  to  facilitate  commerce  in  all 
parts  of  the  larger  islands.  The  chief 
occupation    is    agriculture,   yet   less 


Drying  Hemp  on  the  Island  of  Cebu, — the  principal  export 
of  the  Philippines. 


Making  the  famous  "Manila"  Rope,  in  Manila,  P.  I. 


than  one-tenth  of  the  land  is  under  cultiva- 
tion, and  that  very  imperfectly  tilled. 

Forests  of  the  finest  cabinet  woods  are 
found  on  the  islands.  Very  little  is  known 
of  its  mineral  wealth,  although  gold  is  re- 
ported in  Luzon,  and  coal,  petroleum,  lead, 
copper  and  sulphur  have  been  found  on  the 
other  islands. 

The  custom-house  officials  at  Manila 
predict  a  fifty-million-dollar  commerce  for 
1901  in  the  Philippines,  with  good  pros- 
pects to  soon  double  that  amount. 

The  strife  in  the  islands  has  given  way  to 
peaceful  pursuits,  while  the  establishment 
of  American  schools  and  a  stable  govern- 
ment gives  promise  of  protection  to  busi- 
ness interests;  hence  capital  is  being  in- 
vested in  industries  and  institutions  that 
promise  good  to  our  far-away  island  friends. 


118 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


DePghts  of  Oriental  Farm'ng. —  Prepar'ng  ground  for  Rice,  the  Filipinos' 
"Staff  of  L''fe." 


At  ten  o'clock  next  morning  tlie  Yawata 
is  under  way  again.     We  go  out  past  the 
old  fort  of  Cavite,  whose   Spanish  guns 
tried  in  vain  to  wreck  the  American  fleet 
in  the  battle  on  the  bay. 

We  enter  the  China  sea,  and  on  the  18th 
reach  the  great  English  center  of  Chinese 
commerce  —  Hong  Kong,  650  miles  north- 
east of  Manila.  Hong  Kong  is  an  island 
eight  miles  long,  lying  off  the  south  China 
coast.  It  was  acquired  by  Great  Britain 
from  the  Chinese  in  1841,  and  in  1842 
the  present  port  of  Victoria  was  estab- 
lished and  made  an  English  military  and 
naval  station.  It  has  since  become  the 
great  clearing-house  of  Oriental  and  Oc- 
cidental trade.  Our  consul  tells  us  that 
the  annual  tonnage  of  commerce  often  sur- 
passes 14f  million  tons.  So  great  has  this 
commerce  become  that  England  in  1898 
was  forced  to  lease  of  China  400  square 
miles  of  land  and  water  territory  sur- 
rounding Hong  Kong,  to  provide  anchor- 
age, dockage,  and  proper  defense  to  the 


port's  expanding  commerce.  Through  this 
port  China  sends  one-fourth  of  her  exports 
and  receives  one-third  of  her  imports. 

Our  ]Sr.  Y.  K.  steamer  now  heads  north- 
ward, toward  the  island  empire  of  Japan. 

On  the  morning  of  the  24th  we  reach  the 
"gate  through  which  the  Western  civili- 
zation first  flowed  into  Japan" — Nagasaki. 
This  is  the  first  port  of  entry  for  vessels 
coming  to,  and  the  last  port  of  call  for 
vessels  going  from,  Japan.  It  lies  at  the 
head  of  an  inlet  three  miles  long  and  from 
one-half  to  a  mile  wide. 

We  see  the  process  of  coaling  a  vessel  in 
the  harbor,  which  to  Americans  is  a  very 
interesting  sight,  as  our  people  use  labor- 
saving  machinery  largely  for  this  work. 
The  vessel  coaled  was  the  "  Gaelic,"  of 
Maru  I  the  O.  &:  O.  line,  plying  between  Japan  and  San 


The  right  way  to  Filipino  Freedom. —  Boys  in  Normal   High 
School,   Manila,   P.   I. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


119 


Francisco.  The  ship  we  see  sur- 
rounded by  boats  of  many  kinds, 
shapes  and  sizes,  called  lighters. 
These  ari*e  loaded  with  coal  and 
workmen.  Staging  is  extended 
from  the  lighters  to  the  ship's 
deck.  Now  men  go  below  in  the 
hold  of  the  steamer  to  "trim" 
or  compactly  store  the  coal; 
women  form  lines  and  pass  it  up 
in  baskets  which  hold  from  ten  to 
twelve  pounds,  throwing  the  empty 
baskets  into  the  lighter  boats  to  be 
gathered  up  by  children,  who  also 
assist  in  filling  them  up.  In  this 
way  these  Japanese  men,  women 
and  children  constitute  a  human 
elevator,  and  in  the  course  of  six 
or  eight  hours  store  1200  tons  in 
the  coal-bins  of  the  Gaelic.  We 
learn  that  for  this  work  the  women 
are  paid  at  the  rate  of  nine  cents 
and  the  men  thirteen  cents  a  day. 

We  find  at  Xagasaki  a  dry-dock  cut  out  of  the 
solid  rock,  costing  more  than  a  million  dollars  and 
available  for  Japan's  largest  ships.  Here  also  we 
find  large  engineering  works  and  shipbuilding 
yards.  It  is  here  that  Siberian  and  Korean  pas- 
sengers from  the  west  and  south  generally  change 
steamer. 

Our  ticket  reads  to  Kobe,  and,  as  good  steamer 
connections  can  there  be  made,  we  will  continue 
our  voyage  on  the  X.  Y.  K.  steamer  to  that  point. 
After  leaving  Nagasaki  our  steamer  moves  up  the 
western  coast  of  the  Kiushu  island  to  the  Straits 
of  Shimonoseki,  148  miles.  This  is  the  opening 
to  the  inland  sea.  The  seven  forts  of  Shimonoseki 
guard  this  passage  with  the  most  powerful  modem 
artillery.  Here  was  concluded  the  treaty  of  peace 
that  closed  the  China-Japanese  war  of  1894-5, 
giving  Japan  the  island  of  Formosa,  noted  as  the 
camphor  island  of  the  world. 


Rafts  of  Cocoanuts  on  one  of  the  Waterways  of  Manila. 


We  have  seen  many  beautiful  places  on  this  Pa- 
cific voyage,  but  as  we  sail  through  this  inland  sea, 
from  eight  to  forty  miles  wide  and  240  miles  long, 
it  impresses  us  as  surprisingly  like  a  fairy  land. 
The  sea  seems  studded  with  islands  of  almost 
every  conceivable  shape,  from  the  barren  rocky 
islet  to  the  island  of  emerald  green,  artificially 
terraced  to  its  summit.  It  is  not  definitely  known 
how  many  of  these  little  islands  break  the  con- 
tinuity of  this  watery  blue,  but  surely  they  number 
in  the  thousands.  The  islands  are  not  generally 
wooded,  and  many  are  mountainous.  The  intri- 
cate channel  often  passes  within  a  stone's-throw  of 
the  shore,  and  between  some  of  the  islands  has  a 
current  of  four  to  six  knots  an  hour. 

September  26th  we  reach  Kobe,  our  destination, 
"  the  brightest  and  healthiest  of  all  the  foreign  set- 
tlements in  the  empire,"  we  are  told. 

As   we  come   down  the   gang-plank  from  the 


120 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Looking   northeast   over  the    Bay,  from   the  New  Market, 
Hong  Kong,  China. 

Yawata  Maru  we  notice  the  funny  two-wheeled 
carts  in  a  line,  each  with  an  almond-eyed  Japanese 
wearing  a  stiff  round  hat  covered  with  blue  cotton, 
about  the  shape  and  size  of  a  small  butter-bowl 
upside  down.  He  also  wears  a  loose-fitting  shirt 
fastened  with  a  knotted  sash,  and  a  pair  of  tights. 
This  is  the  jinrikisha  man  waiting  to  be  hired. 
We  observe  that  each  man  stands  by  his  vehicle 
and  motions  to  his  legs  and  then  to  his  jinrikisha, 
as  much  as  to  say,  "  Try  my  speed."  These  are 
the  cabs  of  Japan,  and  after  going  through  the 
custom-house  we  hire  our  human  steeds  for  ten 
cents  an  hour,  and  see  the  sights  of  this  Japanese 
city  of  160,000  people. 

We  learn  that  this  port  was  open  to  foreign 
trade  in  1868,  and  ten  years  later  its  imports  and 
exports  aggregated  12^  million  yen  as  against  40^ 
million  yen  for  Yokohama,  the  chief  commercial 
port  of  the  empire.  In  1897  Yokohama's  com- 
merce was  ITY^  million  yen,  with  Kobe  a  close 


second  — 162  million  yen.  This  port  is  the 
center  of  the  tea  trade,  and  is  connected  by 
rail  with  the  many  commercial  cities  on  the 
island  of  Hondo. 

Just  a  little  to  the  south  and  east  lies  the 
ancient  military  capital  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  now  the  second  city  of  the  empire 
in  population,  but  the  ranking  city  in  man- 
ufactures, where  60,000  hands  are  em- 
ployed. The  detail  plan  of  harbor  construc- 
tion now  being  carried  on  involves  the  ex- 
penditure of  twenty  million  yen,  and  will 
probably  make  Osaka  the  shipping  as  well 
as  commercial  capital  of  Japan. 

To  the  north,  thirty  miles  inland, .  is 
Kyoto  (meaning  capital).  This  city  was 
founded  in  793,  A.  D.,  and  for  many  cen- 
turies was  the  imperial,  intellectual,  polit- 
ical, religious  and  artistic  metropolis  of  the 
empire.  The  city  is  the  third  city  of  Japan, 
and  its  people  make  the  fine  porcelain  and 
weave  and  dye  the  beautiful  silk  fabrics 
that  find  such  a  ready  market  in  Europe  and 
America. 

To  the  northwest  is  the  treaty  port,  with  its  ex- 
pansive harbor,  that  Perry  opened  to  the  world  in 
1854  —  Yokohama,  in  the  center  of  the  empire's 
most  extensive  silk  district. 

Fifty  minutes  ride  from  the  latter  place  is  the 
present  capital  —  Tokyo  (west  capital),  a  city 
about  the  size  of  our  own  Chicago. 

These  facts  we  learn  from  an  American  tourist 
who  accompanied  us  on  our  trip  around  Kobe  and 
vicinity.  He  wanted  us  to  ascend  the  sacred  moun- 
tain, an  extinct  volcano — Fusiyama  {foo-zi-a-ma)y 
situated  near  the  central  part  of  Hondo,  and  more 
than  two  miles  high.  But  we  feel  that  we  cannot 
spare  the  time,  and,  returning  to  the  consulate,  he 
aids  us  to  get  our  necessary  passports  for  crossing 
Asia. 

We  find  a  steamer  of  the  N.  Y.  K.  line  will  clear 
port  in  two  hours  for  Vladivostok.     We  pay  54 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


121 


yen  ($27)  for  our  ticket,  and  at  the  wharf 
seek  our  steamer  for  Siberia. 

We  find  at  their  respective  piers  on  the 
water-front,  vessels  carrying  the  flags  of 
twenty-one  steamer  lines,  but  the  white  flag 
with  two  parallel  red  stripes  across  the  center 
marks  the  location  of  the  ]^.  Y.  K.  steam- 
ers. Here  we  find  the  vessel  that  is  to  take 
us  across  the  sea  of  Japan  to  the  mainland. 
It  is  a  modern  vessel  in  all  its  equipments, 
heated  by  steam  and  lighted  by  electricity. 
The  "  clack !  clack !  "  on  the  wharf  causes 
us  to  determine  what  makes  the  noise.  We 
find  that  the  Japanese  have  blocks  of  wood 
about  three  inches  high  fastened  to  the 
bottoms  of  their  sandals,  to  keep  their  feet 
dry.  Their  rain-coats  are  made  of  rice 
straw  and  their  umbrellas  of  paper.  On 
a  rainy  day  like  this  one,  the  natives  of  the 
whole  city  are  three  inches  taller.    We  now 


Bamboo   Avenue,  Kyoto,  Japan. 


A  SemicTCuIar  Bridge  in  quaint  old  Japan. 

thread  our  way  back  through  "  Fairyland," 
and,  after  coaling  at  Moji,  cross  the  sea  to 
the  mainland. 

Our  steamer  first  stops  at  Fusan,  to  de- 
liver a  cargo  of  cotton  yarn  to  the  Koreans 
and  take  on  food  products.  The  eggs  were 
brought  in  crates  of  so  many  "  sticks "  in- 
stead of  so  many  dozen.  Ten  eggs  are 
placed  in  a  long  row,  and  straw  is  put  all 
around  them.  Then  the  straw  is  securely 
tied  between  the  eggs,  making  the  egg-stick. 
These  Koreans  formerly  constituted  a  very 
secluded  people,  and  were  known  in  the 
commercial  world  as  "The  Hermit  Nation." 
Since  the  Chinese-Japanese  war,  Korea  is 
developing  a  very  extensive  commerce  with 
her  neighbors,  Japan,  China,  and  Siberia. 
American  machinery  is  developing  her  gold 
mines,  and  railroads  connect  her  seaport 
towns  with  the  interior  so  her  agricultural 
products  can  reach  the  seacoast. 


122 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Fusiyama,  the  great  Sacred   Mountain  of  Japan. 

Across  the  peninsula  from  Gensan  —  our  next 
port  of  call  —  is  the  principal  seaport  of  Korea, 
Chemulpo.  Into  the  harbor  of  this  city  our  own 
Commodore  Stenfeldt  brought  his  vessel  in  1882, 
and  succeeded  in  negotiating  a  treaty  with  the 
King  of  Korea  that  opened  his  land  to  the  com- 
merce of  the  world.  The  land  of  Korea  is  about 
the  shape  of  Florida  and  the  size  of  Kansas.  The 
harbor  of  Gensan  is  a  commodious  one,  and  we  ob- 
serve that  the  city  is  composed  of  one-story  houses, 
mostly  built  of  mud  and  covered  with  straw- 
thatched  roofs.  The  principal  business  of  the 
citizens,  as  Mr.  Carpenter  has  well  said  of  the 
Seoul  natives,  "  seems  to  be  to  smoke,  to  squat, 
and  to  eat." 

We  now  steam  northward,  cross  the  fortieth  de- 
gree north  latitude,  and  after  two  days  of  boister- 
ous seas  enter  the  Gulf  of  St.  Peter  the  Great, 
lu  a  few  hours  we  reach  the  wharf,  and,  saying 
"  Sayouara "    (farewell)   to  our  Japanese  sailors 


and  friends  of  the  Yawata  Maru,  descend  the 
gang-plank.  Our  Pacific  voyage  of  nearly 
14,400  miles  is  ended,  and  we  are  in  the 
great  seaport  of  Russian  Asia,  one  of  the 
most  strongly  fortified  cities  of  the  globe  — 
Vladivostok. 


Across   tlie   Eastern   Continent   by 
Rail. 

OuK  last  chapter  left  us  at  Vladivostok. 
We  reached  this  port  October  5,  and  went 
at  once  to  police  headquarters.  Here  our 
passports  were  critically  examined  and  we 
were  asked  many  questions.  The  result  of 
the  conference  was  that  we  were  all  pro- 
vided with  permits  from  the  chief  of  police, 
giving  us  the  privilege  of  purchasing  tickets 
for  St.  Petersburg  via  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railroad.  We  now  go  out  to  find  the  rail- 
way station,  purchase  our  tickets,  get  a  time 
table,  and  to  plan  for  the  long  ride. 

After  zigzagging  over  the  city  we  at  last 
reach  a  building  that  looks  like  an  American  rail- 
road depot,  and  here  we  learn,  through  a  Russian 
soldier  who  speaks  English,  how  to  proceed. 

After  considerable  trouble  we  all  secure  our 
tickets,  buying  through  tickets  to  St.  Petersburg, 
for  which  we  pay  250  rubles  ($125)  for  first- 
class  tickets.  Here  are  sold  three  classes  of  tick- 
ets; the  second  class  costs  170  rubles,  and  the 
third  class  90  rubles.  At  Russian  points  along 
the  railroad  a  fourth-class  or  land-seeker's  ticket 
is  sold  to  any  Siberian  points.  Por  all  places  west 
of  Tobolsk  the  fare  is  but  two  rubles.  For  any 
station  east  of  that,  even  to  Vladivostok,  the 
fourth-class  passenger  pays  but  four  and  a  half 
rubles.  The  Government  of  Russia  in  this  way 
is  inducing  peasant  farmers  to  enter  Siberia  and 
help  develop  her  agricultural  resources.  Within 
three  years  from  the  date  upon  which  these  tickets 
were  first  put  on  sale,  600,000  peasant  families 
entered  Siberia's  great  agricultural  region,  that 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


UNi]/^ 


123 


comprises  more  than  425,000  square  miles  of  tilla- 
ble land,  at  least  25  per  cent,  of  whicli  is  a  ricii 
black  loam,  well  adapted  to  wheat. 

The  station-master  tells  us  the  Chabarovska  ex- 
press, with  mail  and  passengers  for  Moscow  and 
St.  Petersburg,  leaves  at  9  :25  each  morning.  We 
receipt  our  baggage,  secure  a  drosky  (the  Russian 
carriage),  and  explore  the  city. 

Our  driver  fortunately  can  understand  Eng- 
lish, and  though  speaking  our  tongue  in  a  very 
broken  manner,  yet  it  is  intelligible.  The  long 
beards,  fur  caps,  and  thick  fur  coats  reaching  to 
the  tops  of  high  boots,  mark  the  Russian  citizens. 

The  streets  and  houses  are  similar  to  those  of 
an  American  town.  The  houses  are  substantial 
buildings  of  wood,  stone,  and  brick.  The  city  is 
built  on  hills  sloping  toward  the  harbor.  At  the 
top  of  one  hill  we  alight  and  observe  the  picture 
spread  out  before  us.  On  the  slopes  of  the  hills  is 
Vladivostok  —  a  bit  of  Russia  let  down  by  the 
Pacific,  a  city  of  nearly  30,000  people.  To  the 
right  and  left  are  the  harbor  forts  in  whose  bar- 
racks are  thousands  of  soldiers.  At  anchor  in  the 
bay  are  Japanese,  German,  Norwegian,  English, 
and  American  merchantmen,  as  well  as  Russian. 
We  later  learn  that  since  the  completion  of  the 
Ussuri  Railway  the  government  has  made  such 
rates  for  merchandise  from  this  port  to  the  Amur 
river  that  commerce  has  been  attracted,  and  the 
port  is  now  doing  a  good  commercial  business. 

Formerly  the  port  was  closed  to  navigation  five 
months  of  the  year  by  the  ice  in  the  harbor.  The 
government  has  fitted  up  powerful  ice-breaking 
steamers  to  keep  her  ports  free  from  ice.  Our 
driver  informed  us  that  one  of  these  steamers,  the 
Ermack,  is  now  in  the  shipyard  being  repaired 
and  made  ready  for  her  winter's  work. 

At  our  request  he  drives  us  to  the  American 
consulate.  Our  commercial  agent,  Mr,  R.  T. 
Greener,  secures  the  necessary  permit  and  takes 
us  through  the  Russian  dockyards  to  where  the 
Ermack  is  being  fitted  for  her  energetic  work. 


He  informed  us  that  this  vessel  was  made  by 
shipbuilders  at  Newcastle  -  on  -  Tyne,  and  was 
launched  in  1898.  The  vessel  is  305  feet  long, 
71  feet  wide,  and  42^  feet  deep.  It  has  a  displace- 
ment of  8000  tons;  its  propelling  machinery  is 
divided  into  four  sets,  and  has  a  combined  force  of 
10,000  horse-power.  The  hull  has  48  water-tight 
compartments,  that  have  been  subjected  to  the  se- 
verest test.  Mr.  Greener  called  our  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  bow  is  cut  away,  and  the  exceed- 
ingly low  overhang  serves  the  double  purpose  of 
breaking  the  ice  with  which  it  comes  in  contact 
and  of  protecting  the  forward  propeller.  This  ice- 
breaker by  its  forward  propeller  disturbs  the  water 
under  the  ice,  which  deprives  it  of  its  support,  and 
then  the  force  of  the  heavy  vessel  breaks  through 
it,  oftentimes  with  a  roar  like  the  bursting  of  an 
ice-gorge.  Admiral  Makaroff,  who  designed  this 
vessel,  arranged  for  its  powerful  screw  to  point 
upward  and  to  revolve  rapidly  in  a  horizontal 
plane  ahead  of  the  cutwater  and  under  the  ice. 
This  is  the  secret  of  her  great  success  as  an  ice- 
breaker. The  upward  pressure  of  the  water  from 
the  rapidly  rotating  wheels  cracks  the  ice,  which 
the  large  steel  bows  then  force  asunder.  In  March, 
1899,  the  Ermack  forced  her  way  through  200 
miles  of  ice.  The  last  fifty  miles  of  the  trip  the 
ice  was  ten  feet  thick.  She  hurled  huge  blocks 
of  ice  to  the  right  and  left  as  easily  as  the  modern 
locomotive  plow  hurls  the  snow.  The  Ermack  cut 
through  the  last  nine  miles  of  that  ice  wall  in  one 
hour.  By  use  of  these  ice-breakers  Russia  can 
keep  her  Baltic,  White,  and  Kara  seas,  as  well  as 
Vladivostok,  open  to  commerce  twelve  months  in- 
stead of  seven  months  in  the  year. 

As  we  returned  to  the  consulate  Mr.  Greener 
told  us  that  the  United  States  has  direct  com- 
munication with  this  port  through  New  York, 
San  Francisco,  Portland  (Ore.),  and  the  Puget 
Sound  ports.  Most  of  the  ties  for  the  Manchurian 
Railway  came  from  our  Pacific  coast,  while  a  large 
per  cent,  of  the  steel  rails  and  the  rolling-stock 


124 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Sacred  to  the  "Son  of  Heaven." — Grand  Throne  in  the  Ennperor's  Palace, 
Forbidden  City,  Peking,  China. 


of  tlie  Trans-Siberian  are  from  American  steel- 
works, car-  and  locomotive-shops,  sent  via  New 
York. 

You  will  find  American  track-laying  machinery, 
American  civil  engineers,  and,  on  many  trains, 
American  locomotive  engineers. 

We  find  no  one  at  the  hotel  who  can  speak 
English,  so  we  are  forced  to  use  the  "  sign  lan- 
guage "  to  make  our  wants  known.  We  resolve  to 
conquer  Russian  before  we  leave  the  bounds  of  the 
empire. 

The  next  morning  we  start  on  our  trip  across  the 
Euro -Asia  continent.  Our  train  is  similar  to 
American  trains,  with  library,  sleeping,  dining 
and  observatory  cars.  We  find  the  dining-car 
service  good  and  charges  very  reasonable. 

Our   route   lies   along  the   Ussuri   river   from 


Xikolskoe  to  the  Amur,  at  Chabarov- 
ska.  This  is  482  miles  from  Vladi- 
vostok, and  the  road  is  locally  known 
as  the  Ussuri  Railway.  We  are  told 
that  this  division  of  the  transconti- 
nental line  was  completed  in  1897. 

At  Nikolskoe  we  observe  a  division 
of  the  road  running  off  to  the  north- 
east. This  we  learn  to  be  a  branch 
of  the  Eastern  Chinese  Railway, 
connecting  with  the  main  line  at  Har- 
bin, on  the  Sungaria. 

The  main  line  of  the  Eastern  Chi- 
nese Railway  is  now  being  built  from 
the  Onon  Station,  near  Stretenska,  on 
the  central  division  of  the  Siberian 
Railway,  to  Port  Arthur. 

From  Niuchwang,  a  station  north 
of  Port  Arthur,  a  branch  runs  around 
the  Gulf  of  Pechili,  connecting 
Tientsin,  Taku  and  Peking  with  the 
Eastern  Railway. 

The  section  from  Tientsin  to 
Peking  was  destroyed  by  the  Box- 
ers in  1900.  The  main  line  of  the 
Eastern  Railway  through  Manchuria  was  begun 
at  the  Port  Arthur  end,  and  more  than  500  miles 
of  the  945  miles  of  the  road  wdthin  Chinese 
territory  was  completed  before  the  Boxer  troubles 
of  1900  stopped  progress  on  this  road.  The  road 
from  Tsitsika  to  Onon  is  yet  to  be  built.  The  total 
length  of  this  division,  Onon  to  Port  Arthur,  is 
1920  versts  (1273  miles).  When  completed,  this 
Manchurian  road  will  shorten  the  Siberian  Rail- 
way 514  versts  (341  miles). 

We  notice  that  each  station-house  on  this  line 
of  road  is  different  either  in  shape  or  color  from 
its  immediate  predecessor,  and  is  a  neat,  trim 
building,  ornamental  as  well  as  useful.  This  is  a 
characteristic  feature  of  the  entire  line  of  road. 

The  business  on  the  Ussuri  division  has  in- 
creased remarkably  since  the  line  was  opened,  and 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


126 


is  now  doing  a  heavy  freight  as  well  as  a  satisfac- 
tory passenger  traffic. 

We  reach  Chabarovska  twenty-eight  hours  after 
starting,  and  are  transferred  to  the  Marine  depart- 
ment of  the  Siberian  road. 

This  route  of  the  main  line  from  Stretenska  to 
Chabarovska  involves  so  much  expense,  and  build- 
ing the  road  means  so  many  technical  difficulties, 
the  construction  of  this  section  has  been  deferred. 
The  Chinese  Eastern  Kailway  Company  has  been 
organized,  and  encouraged  to  immediately  con- 
struct the  Manchurian  branch  line  heretofore 
spoken  of.  In  the  meantime  the  government  has 
made  use  of  the  Amur  and  Shilka  rivers  as  the 
transporting  link  between  the  two  sections  of  com- 
pleted railway. 

We  are  fortunate  in  getting  passage  on  the 
"Amgoon."  This  is  a  side-wheel  steamer,  160 
feet  long,  with  compound  surface  condensing  en- 
gines of  600  horse-power  with  two  locomotive 
wood-burning  boilers.  It  is  one  of  the  best  of  the 
108  steamers  used  by  the  Marine  department  of 
the  road. 

Huge  steel  barges  over  200  feet  long,  having  a 
capacity  of  400  tons  and  a  draught  of  3^  feet  of 
water,  are  drawn  by  the  steamers,  which  increases 
their  freight-carrying  capacity  at  a  minimum  of 
expense.  These  vessels  convey  construction  mate- 
rial for  the  road  as  well  as  miscellaneous  freight. 

The  steamers  now  have  regular  runs  on  schedule 
time  from  Chabarovska  to  Stretenska,  the  east-end 
terminus  of  the  middle  section  of  the  road  and 
head  of  navigation  on  the  Shilka  river,  a  distance 
of  1423  English  miles. 

As  we  pass  along  we  notice  buoys,  and  learn 
that  the  river  Amur  has  been  buoyed  as  far  as 
navigable,  to  indicate  to  the  pilot  the  best  channel. 
To  further  assist  navigation,  stations  have  been 
established  along  the  river,  where  daily  records  are 
kept  of  the  depth  of  water,  and  placarded  so  the 
pilot  can  read  them  as  he  passes  along. 

Though  we  reach  the  Amur  more  than  500  miles 


from  its  mouth,  we  notice  that  the  river  is  wider 
than  our  great  Father  of  Waters  at  any  place  in 
its  entire  course.  The  Amur  here  is  a  mile  and 
a  half  wide.  As  we  go  up  the  river  we  find  its 
current  is  so  strong  that  the  trip  up  requires  nearly 
twice  as  many  days  as  it  does  to  come  down.  An 
English  traveler  who  passed  over  the  route  in  the 
spring  told  us  that  his  boat  came  down  in  eight 
days,  while  our  schedule  reads  fourteen  days  for 
the  run  up-stream. 

This  river  for  hundreds  of  miles  has  not  a  cul- 
tivated field,  and  the  only  objects  that  show  the 
presence  of  man  are  the  piles  of  wood  on  the  bank, 
fuel  for  the  steamers. 

When  we  reach  one  of  these  piles  our  steamer 
loads,  and  most  of  the  passengers  go  on  shore,  ex- 
ploring the  deep  and  lonely  woods.  So  long  does 
it  take  the  Russian  crew  to  load  the  fuel  that 
sometimes  the  steamer-women  wash  and  dry  their 
clothes  before  the  whistle  calls  "All  aboard." 

We  find  that  commerce  on  the  river  is  estab- 
lishing hamlets  at  the  "  woodpiles,"  and  these  are 
sending  colonial  settlements  into  the  interior.  In 
this  way,  this  immense  river  basin,  apparently 
fertile  and  seemingly  habitable,  will  eventually 
know  the  plow  and  the  harvest. 

This  river  is  navigable  for  more  than  1500 
miles,  and  drains  a  greater  territory  than  any 
river  in  Europe  or  iti^orth  America  save  the  Missis- 
sippi alone.  We  find  the  port  of  Blagovestchensk 
to  be  a  commercial  city  of  nearly  50,000,  whose 
river-front  extends  from  six  to  seven  miles.  It 
has  large  general  wholesale  and  retail  shops,  built 
of  brick,  with  ample  rooms,  lighted  with  elec- 
tricity. N'ot  only  Russian  but  German  and 
French  merchants  are  doing  a  profitable  business 
at  this  large  trade  center,  whose  trade  territory 
reaches  nearly  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk. 

Eleven  hundred  miles  from  the  Ussuri  Railway 
station  the  "  Amgoon "  pilot  turns  our  vessel  to 
the  right,  up  the  Shilka,  a  navigable  tributary  of 
the  Amur.     We  follow  this  river  to  its  head  of 


126 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


navigation,  where  we  find  Stretenska,  a  city  of 
many  thousands.  We  reach  this  eastern  terminus 
of  the  Central  Siberian  road  October  25,  and  en- 
tering the  train  are  soon  whirling  westward.  This 
part  of  the  road  is  750  miles  long,  terminating  at 
Muissov,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Baikal. 

We  find  Onon  an  important  commercial  point, 
destined  to  be  a  railroad  center  when  the  Man- 
ehurian  road  is  completed.  ^Nerchinsk  is  in  a 
rich  mining  district,  which  makes  it  an  important 
trade  center. 

At  Chita  one  of  the  party  learns  that  our  en- 
gineer is  an  American,  and  is  invited  to  ride  over 
the  Yablonoi  mountain  range  in  the  cab.  From 
the  engineer  he  learns  that  the  rails  have  been 
found  too  light  for  quick  traveling,  and  engineers 
are  forbidden  more  than  twenty  miles  speed  per 
hour;  the  average  time  being  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  miles.  From  him  it  is  learned  that  the 
Government  intends  to  replace  all  wooden  bridges 
(over  1400  in  number)  with  iron  or  steel  struc- 
tures, to  replace  the  light  rails  with  heavy  steel 
rails,  and  thoroughly  ballast  the  entire  system  of 
road.  Then,  the  schedule  for  passenger  trains  is 
to  be  raised  from  thirteen  to  thirty-three  miles 
per  hour. 

The  road  was  begun  in  1891  and  contracted  to 
be  open  to  the  Pacific  by  1905.  Through  the  boat 
service  on  the  Amur,  the  road  has  been  doing  a 
through  transcontinental  business  for  some  time, 
but  at  the  present  rate  of  construction,  all-rail 
connection  will  be  made  by  January  1,  1903,  save 
the  Lake  Baikal  cut-off.  Here  the  mountains 
come  so  close  to  the  shore  of  the  lake  that  this 
short  stretch  of  road  would  cost  at  least  twelve 
and  one-half  million  dollars.  For  this  reason, 
train  ferries  run  us  across  the  lake.  At  Mussiov 
our  entire  train  is  run  upon  large  steam  ferries 
like  those  so  common  at  Detroit,  and  we  follow 
the  path  cut  by  the  large  ice-breaking  steamer, 
similar  in  design  and  action  to  the  one  we  saw  at 
Vladivostok. 


We  find  Lake  Baikal  is  a  very  large  body  of 
water,  with  extensive  and  profitable  fishing  indus- 
tries. This  is  one  of  the  few  lakes  of  the  world 
with  fresh-water  seals.  Sturgeon  and  salmon  are 
found  in  paying  quantities,  the  principal  salmon 
fisheries  being  located  on  the  Angora  river  and 
sturgeon  fisheries  on  the  Selenga  river,  that  en- 
ters the  lake  from  the  southeast.  The  fishing  in- 
dustry is  valued  at  300,000  rubles  per  annum. 
This  lake  is  the  center  of  an  earthquake  region, 
and  the  sudden  and  fearful  storms  that  occur  on 
the  lake  force  its  navigators  to  always  be  on  the 
alert.  The  lake  is  drained  by  a  tributary  of  the 
Yenisei,  is  about  375  miles  long,  and  where  our 
ferry  crosses  it  is  forty  miles  wide.  The  lake 
would  cover  all  of  Maryland,  with  Rhode  Island 
thrown  in.  From  the  ferry  we  can  see  sledges  on 
the  caravan  route  crossing  the  ice.  This  route 
brings  down  the  choice  squirrels,  sable,  otter,  and 
ermine  skins  from  northern  Siberia  to  the  Irkutsk 
exchange.  The  very  choicest  of  the  world's  furs 
come  from  Siberia,  and  this  is  one  of  the  greatest 
fur-trade  routes  in  central  Siberia. 

Away  to  the  south  lies  snow-clad  Khar-ma- 
Davan,  whose  summit  rises  more  than  a  mile  above 
the  level  of  this  lake,  which  is  nearly  twice  the 
altitude  of  Lake  Superior. 

Although  it  is  only  October  29,  we  are  sure  no 
winter  weather  in  New  England  has  a  greater  per 
cent,  of  cold  to  the  square  inch  than  that  which  we 
experience  in  our  trip  across  the  lake.  Spirit 
thermometers  are  the  only  kind  used  in  this  re- 
gion in  winter.  We  are  told  that  even  the  ice- 
breaker, which  was  transported  in  sections  and 
put  together  on  the  lake  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing the  lake  open  to  ferries,  was  forced  to  remain 
at  the  Irkutsk  dock  two  months  of  the  last  winter's 
season.  The  cold  storms  made  it  impossible  for 
the  men  to  be  at  their  post  long  at  a  time.  The 
uncertainty  of  the  weather  on  the  lake  is  a  serious 
obstacle  to  winter  transportation.  Although  the 
Tnnka  Alps  reach  to  the  very  lake-shore  on  the 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


127 


south,  the  uninterrupted  transportation  demands 
the  building  of  the  fifty  miles  of  railway  around 
the  southern  shore  of  the  lake  to  Muissov.  This 
is  locally  called  the  Kroogo-Baikal  line.  (Kroogo 
means  circuit.) 

Aft-er  four  hours  on  the  stormy  inland  sea,  we 
run  into  the  station  at  Irkutsk.  Here  is  the  end 
of  the  western  division,  and  we  find  the  city  a 
great  industrial  and  caravan  center  as  well  as 
the  center  of  a  rich  mining  district.  Here  are 
rich  mines  of  jasper,  graphite,  serpentine,  lead, 
silver,  and  gold.  Rich  layers  of  coal  and  iron  are 
found  at  more  than  fifty  places  along  this  trans- 
continental road. 

While  Siberia  furnishes  two-thirds  of  Russia's 
output  of  gold,  very  little  but  placer  mining  for 
gold  has  been  attempted,  on  account  of  lack  of 
machinery  for  quartz  mining. 

Yakutsk  province,  lying  to  the  northeast,  with 
its  intense  cold,  covers  an  area  very  nearly  equal 
to  all  the  mining  area  of  our  nation  (exclusive  of 
Alaska),  and  is  reported  exceedingly  rich  in  min- 
eral wealth.  The  Stanovoi  mountains,  that  mark 
its  eastern  boundary,  have  already  revealed  its 
rich  ores  of  silver  and  lead. 

This  city  of  Irkutsk  is  the  second  city  of  Siberia, 
and  is  now  the  commercial  emporium  between  the 
Chinese  Empire  and  Russia.  Some  years  ago  the 
city  of  Kiakhta  was  the  center  of  a  very  large 
caravan  trade.  It  is  100  miles  to  the  southeast, 
on  the  border,  less  than  a  half-mile  from  the 
Chinese  village  of  Maimachin.  Free  interchange 
of  goods  was  established  between  China  and  Rus- 
sia at  this  point  in  1727.  Before  the  treaty  of 
1860  opened  the  whole  Siberian  frontier,  the  trade 
of  this  caravan  center  often  amounted  to  sixteen 
million  rubles  per  year.  Irkutsk,  on  the  lake-and- 
rail  routes,  is  now  the  terminus  of  the  caravan  tea 
trade  from  China,  and  Kiakhta  has  lost  its  pres- 
tige,—  although  it  still  is  an  important  trade  cen- 
ter. Each  year  Irkutsk  holds  a  June  fair,  where 
Chinese  merchants  barter  their  tea,  fruits,  porce- 


lain, silk,  etc.,  for  furs,  metals,  and  European 
goods. 

The  Siberian  Railway  is  rapidly  displacing  one 
of  the  greatest  caravan  routes  in  the  world,  that 
reaches  from  Moscow  through  Tomsk,  Irkutsk, 
Kiakhta,  Maimachin  to  Peking.  This  route  in 
its  palmiest  days  employed  from  15,000  to  16,000 
men,  75,000  to  80,000  beasts  of  burden,  and  trans- 
ported over  60,000  tons  of  freight.  It  required 
six  months  to  make  one  trip.  Now,  Irkutsk  in- 
stead of  Moscow  is  the  terminus  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  trade.  The  caravans  at  this  time  of 
year  consist  of  sledges  drawn  by  dogs,  while  the 
northern  caravans  use  reindeer  with  the  sledges. 

Irkutsk  is  now  connected  with  St.  Petersburg 
by  the  Siberian  Railway,  that  runs  daily  trains 
with  three  classes  of  carriages.  Besides  the  daily 
trains,  each  Friday  a  limited  express  train  leaves 
Irkutsk  for  Moscow.  We  were  fortunate  in  reach- 
ing the  city  in  time  to  take  this  express.  This 
train  is  equal  to  an  American  palace  train, 
with  parlor,  library,  sleeping-  and  dining-coaches, 
lighted  by  electricity  and  heated  with  steam. 
This  express  saves  several  days  over  the  regular 
train. 

As  we  pass  out  of  this  mid-continent  metropo- 
lis, an  American  engineer  is  seen  boarding  the 
train.  We  press  his  hand  warmly,  and  secure  him 
a  seat  on  the  left  hand  near  a  window.  How  good 
it  seems  to  see  a  fellow-citizen  of  the  homeland ! 
Although  we  had  never  met  before,  homeland  ties 
make  us  friends  at  once.  He  tells  us  he  is  a  civil 
engineer  working  on  the  Tiumen  Irkutsk  canal. 
"  While  Siberia  has  a  large  number  of  navigable 
rivers,  with  the  exception  of  the  one  connected 
with  the  transportation  traffic  of  this  road  all  run 
north,  emptying  into  the  Arctic  ocean,  precluding 
the  possibility  of  successful  navigation  their  en- 
tire length.  The  Siberian  Railway  crosses  the 
Obi  and  Yenisei  at  the  navigation  head.  This 
has  stimulated  a  canal  scheme  for  river  naviga- 
tion in  western  Siberia. 


128 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


"Instead  of  lessening  the  importance  of  river 
commerce,  the  completed  railways  have  greatly  in- 
creased their  efficiency.  Before  the  completion 
of  the  Ural  Eailway,  freight  on  the  Toora  and 
Tobolsk  rivers  did  not  exceed  45,000  tons.  After 
the  completion  of  this  railway  the  freight  traffic 
increased  eight  times  that  amount.  Now,  a  regu- 
lar line  of  river  communication  along  the  Obi- 
Irtysh  system  is  kept  up  through  a  length  of 
10,000  miles  of  river  navigation,  reaching  to  the 
most  eastern  rivers  of  Russia. 

"  We  are  now  connecting  this  great  river  system 
with  the  Yenisei  and  Lake  Baikal  river  systems 
at  Irkutsk.  Do  you  see  that  river  to  the  right? 
That  is  the  Angora  river.  This  is  a  navigable 
tributary  of  the  Yenisei.  We  have  found  a  west- 
ern tributary  of  the  Yenisei  below  the  entrance  of 
the  Angora  that  runs  within  five  miles  of  a  lake 
contiguous  to  the  Kiete,  a  navigable  tributary  of 
the  Obi.  We  have  cut  a  canal  across  to  connect 
through  the  lake  to  the  Kiete.  We  can  then  fol- 
low the  Kiete  river  310  miles  to  the  Obi,  and  our 
canal-and-river  route  is  complete.  Through  the 
many  navigable  rivers  running  north  and  south 
we  have  a  perfect  river  communication  with  all 
northern  and  western  Siberia,  from  Kiakhta  on 
the  Senegal.  One  can  then  go  by  water  from  the 
Mongolian  frontier  to  the  Ural  range,  connecting 
Tiomen  and  Kiakhta  (3600  miles  apart)  by  water. 
Most  of  the  route  is  now  open,  and  we  hope  to  open 
the  whole  canal  in  the  near  future." 

Thus  our  American  friend  explained  to  us 
Russia's  plan  of  the  Siberian  canal-and-river  sys- 
tem of  transportation. 

Just  before  we  reach  the  rich  mining  center  of 
Krasnoyarsk,  we  cross  the  main  stream  of  the 
Yenisei  on  a  fine  modern  bridge  3500  feet  long. 
The  Yenisei  is  the  largest  river  in  Siberia,  and  its 
valley  is  sure  to  be  the  scene  of  great  agricultural 
development.  The  city  of  Krasnoyarsk  is  a  good 
illustration  of  the  numerous  cities  that  have  been 
located  along  this  line  of  road  at  its  junction  with 


good  water  routes  of  tradCj  with  the  interior.  At 
this  city  we  saw  sticks  of  milk  for  sale.  Our 
American  engineer  told  us  that  this  is  the  common 
method  of  selling  milk  for  seven  months  of  the 
year.  The  purchaser  puts  a  stick  in  his  milk  brick 
and  carries  it  home  over  his  shoulder. 

At  the  next  station  our  friend  transferred  to  the 
branch  line  that  runs  to  Tomsk.  This  city  is  the 
greatest  manufacturing  center  in  Siberia,  and  is 
one  of  the  oldest  cities,  having  been  founded  in 
1610.  The  engineer  told  us  that  this  city  is  also 
the  trade  center  of  one  of  the  oldest  and  richest  of 
Siberia's  great  mining  regions.  Mining  was 
started  here  as  early  as  1726.  Many  convict 
mines,  worked  by  the  exiles  sent  by  the  govern- 
ment to  Siberia,  are  located  here.  Gold,  silver, 
lead  and  iron  are  stored  in  unknown  quantities  in 
the  mountains.  More  than  500  kinds  of  colored 
stones  are  obtained,  with  rich  quarries  of  granite, 
porphyry  and  other  good  building-stone.  Two 
springs  of  hot  mineral  water  have  been  discovered 
in  this  neighborhood,  and  within  seventy-five  miles 
of  Tomsk  an  immense  field  of  bituminous  coal 
has  lately  been  discovered.  Besides  mining  and 
manufacture,  15,000  men  are  employed  in  agri- 
culture, and  the  fishing  industry  is  profitably  car- 
ried on. 

To  Americans  it  seems  strange  that  the  largest 
and  greatest  industrial  city  of  Siberia  should  be 
reached  only  by  a  "  stub  switch." 

When  we  cross  the  Obi  we  enter  a  great  lake  re- 
gion fully  300  miles  wide,  and  reaching  through 
the  Kirghiz  steppe  region  to  Lake  Bal-Kash  on 
the  south. 

To  the  north  of  us,  reaching  through  the  north- 
east region,  lies  the  great  forest  area, —  the  home 
of  the  panther,  lynx,  wolf,  fox,  ermine,  glutton, 
badger,  bear,  and  other  wild  animals  hunted  by 
the  nomadic  tribes  inhabiting  this  region.  This 
forest  zone  is  estimated  to  contain  two  million 
square  miles.  All  this  vast  timber  is  practically 
untouched.     Wood  for  fuel  and  timber  for  build- 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


129 


ing  are  here  in  well-nigh  inexhaustible  quantities. 
The  navigable  streams  crossed  by  the  railroad  will 
furnish  avenues  to  bring  lumber  to  market. 

In  the  library  car  we  find  an  English  transla- 
tion of  "Industries  of  Eussia,"  published  by  the 
government ;  and  the  work  gives  us  some  remarka- 
bly interesting  statistics.  Speaking  of  the  forest 
region,  we  find  the  following :  "  There  are  many 
localities  where  for  tens  and  hundreds  of  versts  in 
every  direction  stand  clean  plantations  of  pine, 
which,  with  their  interlaced  summits,  hide  the  sky. 
The  absolutely  naked  trunks,  rising  perfectly 
straight  to  an  enormous  height,  are  so  monotonous 
that  a  man  who  once  chances  into  such  a  part  of 
the  Siberian  taiga,  or  even  a  wild  beast,  cannot 
find  his  way  out  again.  Experienced  native  trap- 
pers are  afraid  to  penetrate  into  one  of  these,  in 
their  opinion,  enchanted  spots,  and  they  record 
every  step  they  take  by  scoring  the  trees." 

We  here  learn  that  north  of  this  forest  zone  is 
the  polar  or  northern  zone,  lying  north  of  the 
Arctic  Circle.  This  is  a  treeless  plain,  sloping 
toward  the  Arctic  ocean,  a  frozen,  swampy  region 
called  the  "  tundra."  Here  deep  snow  covers  the 
ground  nine  to  ten  months  in  the  year,  and  the 
ground  is  perpetually  frozen  in  some  places  from 
80  to  100  feet  deep.  The  coldest  inhabited  place 
is  Verk-hoyansk,  in  the  far  northeastern  part.  All 
its  inhabitants  are  the  Russian  officials,  and  the 
Yakuts,  fur-trading  Jews.  This  town  registers  an 
average  winter  temperature  of  53  degrees  below 
zero,  with  days  on  record  when  the  thermometer 
reached  85  degrees  below  zero. 

Here  rivers  are  frozen  to  the  very  bottom,  and 
trees  have  been  known  to  snap  and  split  with  the 
mere  force  of  the  frost.  In  the  alluvial  deposits 
of  the  river  valleys,  fossil  remains  of  extinct  spe- 
cies of  elephants  and  other  animals  furnish  the 
large  quantities  of  ivory  exported  from  this  re- 
gion. This  part  is  of  little  commercial  value  out- 
side of  its  ivory  deposits. 

To  the  south  and  west  extends  the  agricultural 


zone,  reaching  from  the  Ural  mountains  at  about 
60°  north  latitude,  through  the  northern  part  of 
Lake  Baikal,  and  eastward  along  the  line  of  50° 
north  latitude.  It  comprises  about  one-fourth  of 
Siberia  proper. 

But  how  large  is  Siberia  in  its  entirety?  you 
ask. 

An  American,  Mr.  George  Kennan,  after  trav- 
eling over  the  inhabited  portion  of  this  vast  re- 
gion, gave  his  conception  of  the  relative  size  in 
the  following  graphic  picture :  "  If  it  were  possi- 
ble to  move  entire  countries  from  one  part  of  the 
globe  to  another,  you  could  take  the  whole  of  the 
United  States  and  set  it  down  in  the  middle  of 
Siberia  without  touching  anywhere  the  boundaries 
of  the  latter  territory.  You  could  then  take 
Alaska  and  all  the  States  of  Europe,  with  the 
single  exception  of  Russia,  and  fit  them  into  the 
remaining  margin  like  the  pieces  of  a  dissected 
map;  and  after  having  thus  accommodated  all  of 
the  United  States,  including  Alaska  and  all  of  Eu- 
rope except  Russia,  you  would  still  have  300,000 
square  miles  of  Siberian  territory  to  spare;  or, 
in  other  words,  you  would  still  have  unoccupied 
in  Siberia  an  area  half  as  large  again  as  the 
Empire  of  Germany." 

Our  train  is  now  passing  through  the  wheat-belt 
that  stretches  westward  through  European  Russia 
to  the  Black  sea.  This  is  the  region  that  is  now 
calling  on  America  for  millions  of  dollars'  worth 
of  agricultural  implements.  Counting  Russia's 
demand  for  cotton-gins  and  presses  for  her  Cen- 
tral Asia  provinces  and  machinery  for  her  mining 
interests,  with  the  agricultural  implements  pur- 
chased, the  empire  imports  fully  forty  million  dol- 
lars' worth  of  American  machinery  annually. 

To  encourage  raising  of  cereals,  Russia  has  not 
only  experimental  farms,  but  has  built  large 
barges  to  show  her  farmers  a  model  farm.  These 
barges  are  built  late  in  the  fall.  On  the  deck 
is  laid  out  a  comfortable  area  for  the  farm  garden ; 
an  extensive  house  is  built  for  the  professor  in 


130 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Wheat  for  export,  at  South  Russia's  Great  Seaport,  Oaessa. 

charge,  and  a  smaller  house  for  the  crew.  Beside 
the  grain  and  garden  beds  are  located  models  of 
beehives.  With  the  spring  freshet  the  barge  is 
seeded  and  started  down  the  rivers  from  the  dense 
forest  regions  of  the  North.  These  barges  for  the 
present  are  confined  to  European  Russia,  as  here 
the  rivers  flow  south.  The  crops  are  tilled  and 
harvested  while  the  barge  stops  at  the  river  ham- 
lets and  villages  on  the  way  down.  The  church- 
bell  rings  when  the  barge  reaches  a  village,  and 
the  people  come  in  from  the  fields  to  be  led  by  the 
Starosta  (mayor)  to  the  floating  farm,  where  illus- 
trated lectures  are  given,  questions  of  the  farmers 
answered,  and  oftentimes  seed  is  left  with  the 
more  enterprising  for  planting.  By  fall  the 
barges  reach  the  treeless  steppes,  where  they  are 
sold  for  wood,  and  generally  bring  enough  to  pay 
the  down-stream  expenses.  We  are  surprised  to 
learn  what  the  government  is  here  doing  for  the 
agricultural  development  of  the  empire. 

The    region    through   which    our    train    passes 
from  Omsk  to  Samara  is  the  northern  portion  of 


the  great  wheat  region  whose  port  of  com- 
merce has  been  Odessa. 

From  the  library  we  now  go  to  the  dining- 
car  for  lunch.  The  traveler  can  here  lunch, 
dine  and  breakfast  at  the  moderate  price  of 
from  three  to  five  rubles  per  d&j.  The  meals 
are  equal  to  those  served  at  our  best  Ameri- 
can hotels,  and  the  steam  heat  successfully 
combats  the  outside  cold.  Thus  we  are  well 
housed  and  well  fed  on  this  government  train 
while  we  speed  westward  at  a  gratifying  rate 
of  speed. 

At  Kurgan  we  are  told  we  are  but  240 
versts  from  Chiliabinsk,  the  last  station  on 
the  Trans-Siberian  Railway.  Trains  began 
to  run  between  Kurgan  and  Chiliabinsk  in 
December,  1893. 

At  the  last-named  place  we  cross  the  Ural 
ramge   and   enter   European   Russia.      This 
range  is  noted  for  its  rich  platinum  mines 
found  in  the  region  northeast  of  Perm  and  the  val- 
uable gold  mines  found  on  both  sides  of  the  range. 
At  the  city  of  Samara  our  road  makes  a  turn 
to  the  south,  and  for  several  miles  we  ride  along 
the    Mississippi    of    Russia  —  the    Volga.      This 
river  and  its  tributaries  have  50  per  cent,  of  the 
river  traffic  of  European  Russia,  which  usually 
amounts  to  27f  million  tons  annually. 

The  river  is  navigable  for  2000  miles,  and  is 
the  largest  river  in  Europe.  We  cross  this  great 
water-way  of  commerce  on  a  high  iron  bridge  op- 
posite Syzran.  We  now  enter  a  populous  region, 
and  stations  are  close  together,  though  our  through 
express  stops  only  at  large  commercial  centers. 
The  road  and  the  speed  of  the  train  from  Tula 
to  Moscow  make  us  think  of  our  ride  over  the 
New  York  Central. 

Moscow  is  a  large  railroad  and  commercial  cen- 
ter; rich  in  historic  legends,  and  famous  as  the 
City  of  the  Kremlin,  where  all  the  czars  or  em- 
perors since  the  days  of  Ivan  the  Terrible  have 
been   crowned.      The  city   is   said   to  have  been 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


131 


founded  in  the  twelfth,  century,  and  was  the 
seat  of  government  for  400  years.  To-day 
Moscow  is  the  center  of  Panslavism ;  the  real 
heart  of  Eussia,  though  not  the  political  cap- 
ital. It  is  reported  to  be  the  most  character- 
istically Russian  of  all  the  many  cities  found 
in  the  land  of  the  Czar.  We  are  surprised  to 
find  many  hundred  manufactories  in  textile 
fabrics,  gold  and  silver  plate,  jewelry,  hard- 
ware, glass,  porcelain,  delft  ware,  paper, 
tapestry,  chemical  products,  leather,  flour, 
and  sugar. 

Of  the  nearly  four  million  spindles  and 
200,000  looms  of  Eussia,  the  province  of 
Moscow  and  its  neighboring  province  of 
Vladimir  claim  90  per  cent.  Moscow  as  a 
commercial  center  has  water  communication 
with  the  Baltic,  Black,  and  Caspian  seas, 
rail  connection  with  St.  Petersburg,  Warsaw, 
Nijni-Novgorod,  and,  by  the  railway  that  brought 
us  to  the  city,  with  all  Siberia.  A  heavy  sledge 
commerce  is  carried  on  with  Tiflis  and  other  points 
in  Asia  and  southeastern  Eussia,  from  November 
to  April.  This  city  is  larger  than  our  own  St. 
Louis,  and  is  the  second  city  of  the  empire. 

Entering  the  Nicolaeosky  express,  we  whirl  on- 
ward toward  the  capital  city,  400  miles  to  the 
northwest.  This  part  of  Eussia  has  good  railway 
connections,  but  statistics  show  that  the  empire 
has  but  thirty-five  lines  of  railway,  approximating 
a  total  mileage  of  40,000  miles.  One  of  the  long- 
est and  most  important  lines  reaches  from  St. 
Petersburg  to  Nijni-Novgorod,  1035  versts.  This 
line  has  a  heavy  freight  traffic  most  of  the  year, 
and  during  the  summer  season  a  good  passenger 
business,  especially  through  July  and  August. 

This  is  the  time  of  the  great  Eussian  fair  at 
Nijni-Novgorod.  This  fair  is  held  every  year, 
lasting  from  July  27  to  September  6.  It  is  really 
a  large  market,  visited  by  more  than  half  a  mill- 
ion people  from  European  and  Asiatic  Eussia. 
The  merchants  have  their  own  executive  commit- 


Moskwa  River  and  the  shimmering  spires  of  "Holy  Moscow,"  Russia. 


tee,  before  which  body  everything  concerning  trade 
comes.  The  governor  of  Nijni  with  his  military 
staff  stays  on  the  grounds  during  the  fair,  to  see 
that  private  rights  and  public  privileges  are  pro- 
tected and  strict  discipline  maintained.  On  the 
grounds  will  be  found  hotels,  churches,  dining- 
saloons,  theaters,  and  special  quarters  for  Ori- 
entals, as  Tartars  and  Chinese.  The  grounds  have 
good  sewerage,  are  well  supplied  with  water,  and 
as  a  protection  from  fire  the  whole  plot  is  sur- 
rounded with  a  canal  of  water.  Here,  only  227 
miles  from  the  heart  of  Eussia,  is  the  empire's 
greatest  fair,  a  yearly  carnival  of  trade  where  an 
average  of  thirty-five  millions  of  dollars  exchange 
hands.  Consul  Thomas  Smith,  of  Moscow,  says: 
"Eussia  exhibits  for  sale  her  cottons,  prints,  car- 
pets, cloths,  linen,  flannels,  silks,  lace,  bags  of  jute 
and  hemp,  leather,  skins,  chamois,  furs,  paper, 
copper,  cast  iron,  enameled  ware,  cutlery,  agricul- 
tural implements,  implements  for  mechanical  and 
other  industries,  seeds  for  farmers,  oats,  corn, 
wines,  spirits,  paints,  varnish,  cement,  etc.  Sheet 
iron,  boiler-plates,  copper,  precious  stones  and  a 


132 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


variety  of  geological  specimens  from  Siberia  are 
exhibited,  as  well  as  cotton  in  a  raw  state  from 
central  Asia  and  Persia,  and  turquoises,  silks  and 
silverware,  made  in  Oriental  style,  from  Persia, 
Bokhara,  Taschent,  etc." 

But  look!  we  are  entering  the  suburbs  of  that 
city  founded  by  Peter  the  Great,  in  1703,  and  now 
one  of  the  most  interesting  commercial  cities  of 
northern  Europe.  The  city  and  her  citizens  wear 
their  winter  clothing,  the  one  mantled  in  white, 
the  other  snugly  wrapped  in  furs.  Our  double- 
tracked  railway  curves  to  the  right,  and  we  enter 
a  substantial  and  commodious  union  station.  Our 
long  overland  trip,  taking  33  days  and  covering 
9922  versts  (6677  miles),  is  ended.  The  distance 
from  St.  Petersburg  to  Chiliabiusk  is  2810  versts. 
The  railway  between  the  two  cities,  while  under 
government  control,  is  not  counted  as  a  part  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  system,  the  latter  named  city  being 
the  western  terminus  of  the  Siberian  Railway, 
7112  versts  from  Vladivostok.  We  find  St. 
Petersburg,  by  winter,  so  interesting,  that  we  de- 
cide to  tour  the  city  before  we  take  the  steamer 
for  the  dear  old  homeland. 

A  heavy  snow-storm  kept  us  housed  in  our 
hotel  the  day  after  we  arrived  at  St.  Petersburg, 
but  on  the  morning  of  November  10th  a  winter's 
sun  made  the  snow,  frost  and  ice  crystals  sparkle 
like  diamonds.  Bundled  in  Russian  sleighs,  well 
wrapped  up  in  heavy  fur  coats  with  close-fitting 
hoods,  we  start  to  tour  the  city  under  the  direction 
of  an  English-speaking  guide. 

We  hear  the  morning  salute  pedestrians  give 
each  other,  which  our  guide  tells  us  is,  "  Your 
nose !  Your  nose,  sir !  "  One's  nose  gets  very  cold, 
and  would  often  freeze  if  some  one  did  not  call 
attention  to  it,  so  the  owner  could  rub  it  with  snow 
to  take  out  the  frost.  This  has  almost  become  the 
regular  winter-morning  salute  in  St.  Petersburg. 

At  the  head  of  a  well-trodden  street  we  see  a 
palace  sparkling  and  dazzlingly  beautiful  in  the 
morning  sunlight.     It  is  the  crystal  palace,  that 


the  people  of  this  city  make  each  winter.  Square 
blocks  of  ice  are  laid  up  and  water  poured  on 
them,  freezing  the  layers  into  a  solid  wall  of 
crystal  ice.  A  roof  of  modem  ornamental  design 
with  a  fine  tower  or  minaret  surmounts  the  whole. 
The  interior  is  richly  fitted  up,  having  spacious 
rooms  in  which  are  ice  tables,  ice  chairs,  ice  bric- 
a-brac,  and  ice  flowers.  Ice  stairs  lead  to  upper 
rooms,  and  the  whole  is  brilliantly  illuminated 
at  night.  The  ice  furniture  is  supplied  with  warm 
fur  rugs,  and  the  palace  is  the  scene  of  many  fash- 
ionable parties  and  grand  balls  during  the  winter 
months. 

We  are  next  taken  across  to  a  remote  side-street, 
where  the  town  boys  have  an  ice  hill.  This  is  a 
long  incline  made  into  an  ice  slide  as  the  Canadian 
makes  his  toboggan  snow  slide.  Nearly  all  town 
children  in  Russia  have  their  ice  hills,  where  girls 
and  boys  have  keen  winter  sport  with  sleds  and 
skates.  These  St.  Petersburg  children  with  the 
help  of  their  grown  brothers  build  a  high  tower. 
On  one  side  blocks  of  ice  are  laid  to  make  the  in- 
cline, and,  water  being  poured  on,  a  solid  sheet  of 
ice  is  formed.  One  slide  is  especially  made,  along 
which  the  sleds  shall  be  drawn  up.  This  makes 
us  think  of  "  sliding  down  hill,"  and  a  number  of 
our  party  get  out  and  join  the  merry,  shouting 
group.  The  Russian  lads  give  them  all  a  coast, 
and  when  the  Americans,  go  whizzing  down  the 
ice  hill  like  veterans  at  the  art,  they  are  greeted 
with  an  applause  that  is  as  satisfying  as  the 
sport  is  exhilarating. 

With  tingling  cheeks,  fingers  and  nose,  the  coast- 
ers enter  the  sleighs  and  our  guide  pilots  us  to  one 
of  the  many  bridges  that  connect  the  two  parts 
of  the  city.  Here  we  alight  and  go  down  the  steps 
cut  in  the  bank  to  the  ice,  for  a  chair-ride  across 
the  river.  These  chairs  have  warm  covers,  and 
men  on  skates  push  them  over  the  ice.  This  is  the 
passenger  ferry,  and  chair-pushers  do  a  profitable 
business  all  winter,  although  it  costs  less  than  a 
penny  to  cross  the  river. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


133 


We  return  to  our  sleighs  and  are  driven  over  the 
Petersborough  side  of  the  city.  This  part  is  situ- 
ated just  off  the  mainland,  to  which  it  is  connected 
by  150  bridges.  Here  are  the  warehouses  and 
other  buildings  that  reveal  an  extensive  commerce. 

Nearly  two-thirds  of  Hussia's  foreign  commerce 
passes  through  this  city.  From  our  consul  we  later 
learn  that  the  ten  leading  imports  in  order  of  rank 
are :  Kaw  cotton,  engines  and  machinery,  tea,  steel, 
sheet  and  bar  iron,  coal  and  coke,  chemicals  and 
drugs,  salt  or  dried  fish,  raw  wool  and  raw  silk; 
obtained  principally  from  Germany,  Great  Brit- 
ain, United  States,  China,  Finland,  France,  Aus- 
tria, Belgium,  Persia,  Egypt,  and  Italy  —  the 
amount  of  purchase  being  in  the  order  named. 

The  leading  exports  in  order  of  rank  are :  Corn, 
flour  and  meal,  wheat,  flax,  lumber,  rye,  barley, 
oats,  linseed,  petroleum,  sugar,  eggs,  and  cotton 
manufactures.  Eussia  holds  third  place  in  cotton- 
spinning  in  the  world.  The  leading  countries  to 
which  Russia  sends  her  goods  rank  as  follows :  Ger- 
many, Great  Britain,  Holland,  France,  Italy,  Aus- 
tria, Belgium,  Turkey,  Persia,  Denmark,  and  Rou- 
mania.  Russia  is  increasing  the  quantity  of  her 
manufactured  exports,  while  her  manufactured  im- 
ports are  being  correspondingly  lessened. 

The  quays  along  the  Neva  river-front  are  ex- 
tensive, and  mostly  of  hewn  stone.  The  making  of 
artificial  water-ways  and  dredging  of  the  river 
has  made  this  city  a  port  of  entry  for  even  large 
ocean  steamers.  Ice-breaking  steamers  keep  the 
port  open  to  commerce  during  the  winter,  where 
formerly  150  to  200  miles  of  ice  shut  St.  Peters- 
burg's water-gates  five  months  of  the  year. 

At  the  wharf  we  see  a  vessel  loading;  her  flag 
indicates  an  American  port  for  the  steamer's  des- 
tination. Through  our  guide  we  found  that  the 
boat  was  a  "  tramp  "  steamer  that  had  brought  over 
a  cargo  of  raw  cotton  and  machinery  and  was  tak- 
ing a  cargo  for  Hamburg,  Antwerp,  and  Havre. 
From  Havre  the  steamer  would  reload  and  clear 
for  New  York.     The  "tramp"  was  preparing  to 


clear  port  on  the  12th,  and  we  therefore  bargained 
for  staterooms  and  made  arrangements  for  tickets 
of  passage. 

At  the  exchange  we  learn  that  the  port  registers 
upwards  of  3000  entries  per  year. 

Pointing  to  a  large  factory,  our  guide  tells  us 
the  very  finest  leather  for  bookbinding  is  there 
manufactured  —  the  Russia  leather.  Across  the 
block  is  a  large  bookbindery.  This  city  is  the  very 
center  of  the  empire's  book  trade.  We  are  shown 
manufactures  of  cotton,  silk,  woolen  goods,  cannon, 
glass,  tapestry,  and  scores  of  other  commodities 
sold  throughout  the  empire. 

On  Citadel  Island  we  find  the  old  citadel  and 
one  of  the  nation's  large  mints.  Here  we  learn 
the  value  of  the  Russian  coins.  The  legal  unit  is 
the  silver  ruble  of  100  kopecks.  Officials  calculate 
one  ruble  equal  to  51^  cents  United  States  money. 
There  are  three  gold  coins:  the  imperial,  15  ru- 
bles ;  half-imperial,  7  rubles ;  and  the  5-ruble  piece. 
Besides  the  silver  ruble  and  the  gold  coins  named, 
paper  or  credit  notes  of  100,  25,  10,  5,  3,  and  1 
ruble  are  printed  by  the  Government,  and  are  legal 
tender  for  all  debts,  public  and  private. 

Farther  down  the  river,  on  Vasile  Island,  we 
are  shown  the  Academy  of  Arts,  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  with  a  fine  museum,  an  observatory,  and 
a  library  containing  upward  of  125,000  volumes. 
This  latter  school  was  founded  by  Peter  the  Great. 
Here  also  is  the  mining  school,  with  a  celebrated 
selection  of  minerals  and  a  rare  museum  of  Ori- 
ental objects.  On  this  island  also  are  the  fine  bar- 
racks, the  West  Point  academy  of  Russia,  filled 
with  cadets. 

We  observe  that  the  banks  of  the  canals  are  pro- 
tected by  walls  of  hewn  granite.  This  part  of  the 
city  is  but  little  above  the  level  of  the  river,  and 
more  than  once  the  Neva  has  overflowed,  causing 
loss  of  life  and  great  destruction  to  property.  A 
gale  from  the  west,  with  high  tides  in  the  adjacent 
gulf  in  the  spring  when  the  annual  breaking-up  of 
the  ice  occurs,  would  well-nigh  submerge  the  whole 


134 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Bridge  in  St.  Petersburg. 

capital,  but  in  the  200  years  that  the  city  has  ex- 
isted these  three  have  never  occurred  at  the  same 
time,  and  probably  never  will. 

The  Neva  river  is  Lake  Ladoga's  outlet  to  the 
sea.  This  lake  is  about  the  size  of  Lake  Ontario, 
but,  while  Ontario  is  250  feet  above  sea-level, 
Ladoga  is  less  than  sixty  feet.  This  lake  gives  the 
city  canal  and  river  communication  with  an  almost 
unlimited  range  of  inland  territory. 

We  are  driven  across  a  picturesque  bridge  into 
a  large  open  square,  in  the  center  of  which  stands 
Saint  Isaac's  Cathedral.  This  edifice  is  symmet- 
rically perfect,  gigantic  in  its  proportion,  and  mag- 
nificent in  its  simplicity  of  architecture.  The 
original  church  was  constructed  by  the  city's 
founder,  but  the  present  building  was  erected  dur- 
ing the  second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  foundation  is  a  forest  of  21-foot  piles  sunk 
in  the  swampy  soil.  This  alone  cost  two  million 
rubles.  The  whole  building  cost  thirty  million  ru- 
bles. Opposite  to  this  cathedral  is  the  greatest 
monument  in  the  city  —  the  statue  of  Peter  the 
Great.  The  great  Czar  is  represented  reining  in 
his  steed  on  the  very  brink  of  a  rock,  whose  sides 


as  well  as  front  are  precip- 
itous. His  face  is  toward 
the  river  Neva,  his  hand 
pointing  outward  and  up- 
ward. The  spirited  steed 
has  trodden  upon  a  ser- 
pent, typifying  the  difficul- 
ties Peter  encountered  in 
founding  the  city.  This 
equestrian  statue  is  well 
balanced  on  the  hanging 
rock,  weighs  sixteen  tons, 
and  the  head  is  said  to 
bear  a  striking  resemblance 
to  the  great  Peter. 

Scarcely  one  of  the  many 
open  squares  in  the  city 
that  does  not  have  one  or 
more  bronze  statues  of  a  national  hero  or  noted 
czar.  As  we  turn  another  corner  we  see  a  solid 
red  granite  shaft,  154  feet  high,  bearing  the  in- 
scription, in  Russian,  "  To  Alexander  I. —  Grate- 
ful Russia." 

Opposite  this  column  we  face  one  of  the  largest 
palaces  in  the  world.  It  seems  built  in  the  form 
of  a  square,  and  as  our  guide  said,  has  spacious 
and  beautiful  halls  enriched  with  rare  and  costly 
statuary,  gems,  paintings  and  malachite  furnish- 
ings. The  cordon  of  soldiers  shows  that  the  Czar 
is  in  the  palace  with  his  family  of  6000  courtiers 
and  attendants.  The  Salle  Blanche  or  White  Hall, 
decorated  in  white  and  gold,  is  where  the  court  fes- 
tivals are  given.  The  winter  entertainments  in 
this  palace  have  scarcely  an  equal  in  all  Europe. 
On  one  side  of  the  palace  are  the  State  buildings, 
the  home  of  the  several  ministers. 

Connected  to  the  Winter  Palace  by  a  covered 
gallery  is  the  elaborate  palace  built  by  Catharine 
II.  for  a  picture  gallery  and  a  resort  of  pleasure. 
For  this  reason  it  has  been  named  the  Hermitage. 
It  is  now  a  famous  museum,  containing  300  orig- 
inal paintings  by  the  world's  great  masters,  besides 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


135 


many  other  works  of  art ;  a  collection  of  once 
famous  private  libraries,  a  royal  theater,  and 
a  grand  floral  conservatory  planted  with  the 
choicest  flowers  and  shrubs, .  heated  by  sub- 
terranean fires,  and  sheltered  by  a  glass  cov- 
ering. 

Our  guide  now  bids  us  look  up  IJ^evski 
Prospekt.  This  is  the  "  Euclid  Avenue  "  of 
Europe,  150  feet  wide  and  fully  four  miles 
long,  lined  with  stately  trees  which  are  now 
covered  with  snow  and  ice,  glittering  in  the 
afternoon  sun.*  The  beauty  of  the  rich  and 
costly  palaces  and  cathedrals,  the  Grand 
Bazaar  with  its  10,000  merchants  and  mas- 
sive public  buildings  for  which  this  street  is 
famous,  is  all  forgotten  before  this  indescrib- 
able picture  the  sun  has  "  thrown  on  the 
canvas."  St.  Petersburg,  with  her  200  beau- 
tiful churches,  the  spire  of  some,  like  the 
Cathedral  of  Peter  and  Paul,  nearly  400  feet 
high,  with  her  colossal  public  buildings  and  rare 
mansions,  can  present  no  other  picture  so  superbly 
beautiful  as  ISTevski  Prospekt  under  a  winter's  sun ; 
so  we  choose  it  as  our  last  memory  of  the  Czar's 
capital,  and  go  to  our  hotel  to  rest  and  prepare  for 
the  journey  home. 

At  the  hotel  we  learn  that  from  the  Admiralty 
Building  is  the  finest  view  one  can  have  of  the  city ; 
that  from  this  large  public  building  radiate  St. 
Petersburg's  three  finest  streets. 

An  English  traveler  very  interestingly  described 
to  us  his  visit  to  the  Imperial  Library,  stating  that 
nowhere  in  the  world  can  one  find  so  complete  a 
collection  of  the  books  of  the  Middle  Ages  as  this 
library  contains.  Here  are  the  masterpieces  of 
literature,  of  all  ages  and  all  nations,  systemati- 
cally arranged  and  numbering  more  than  one  mill- 
ion volumes.  He  tells  of  the  schools  and  colleges 
of  the  city,  and  narrates  an  amusing  experience 


^  The  trees  have  growo  up  since  the  picture  on  this  page  was  taken. 


Nevski  Prospekt,  the  Pnncipal  Street  in  St.  Petersburg. 

he  had  one  Sabbath-day  when  he  first  came  to  the 
city,  direct  from  London  with  Greenwich  time. 
.(Russia  is  the  one  nation  of  Europe  that  still 
uses  "  Old  Style,"  many  days  different  from  "  New 
Style,"  the  adopted  system  of  the  rest  of  Europe.) 
He  told  us  that  on  a  certain  street  in  the  city  the 
gospel  is  preached  in  twelve  different  languages 
each  Sabbath.  His  sledge-ride  over  Lake  Ladoga 
and  skating-party  on  the  Neva  were  most  graphi- 
cally described,  and  helped  us  to  pass  a  very  pleas- 
ant evening. 

A  Winter  Voyage  Across  the  Atlantic. 

"All  aboard !  "  The  steamer  whistle  sounds,  the 
gang-planks  are  in,  and  a  bustling  tug  pulls  the 
"  tramp  "  into  the  ice-cleared  channel.  While  the 
steamer  is  not  designed  especially  for  the  passenger 
service,  we  find  our'  accommodations  ample  and  the 
"  tramp  "  a  vessel  of  very  respectable  size,  whose 
officers  are  most  courteous  and  obliging. 

A  few  miles  below  the  city  we  observe  the  wide 
expanse  of  the  river,   and  learn  that  the  Neva 


13G 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


The  Fountains  from  Peterhof  Palace,  the  Summer  Residence  of  the 
Czar  of  Russia. 


spreads  out  to  a  broad  estuary  eight  to  ten  miles 
wide  before  it  reaches  the  gulf.  All  sorts  of  ice 
craft  are  visible,  and  the  river  seems  alive  with 
busy  people  going  and  coming  from  the  capital. 
To  the  southwest  across  the  river  we  see  the 
yellow  palace  of  Peterhof.  Its  site  is  a  natural 
elevation  of  about  sixty  feet,  and  the  building  rep- 
resents the  eighteenth  century  architecture,  as  it 
was  built  by  Peter  the  Great.  Succeeding  rulers 
have  so  improved  the  grounds  with  parks,  terraced 
gardens,  groves,  embowered  paths,  fountains,  water- 
falls and  statuary  that  they  rival  the  surroundings 
of  Versailles,  the  finest  palace-grounds  in  Europe. 
In  front  of  the  palace  is  the  "  Samson  "  fountain, 
which  sends  an  80-foot  jet  of  water  in  the  air  to 
descend  in  shining  spray.  Scores  of  lesser  foun- 
tains with  playing  jets  reveal  a  design  of  water- 


works as  beautiful  as  it  is  intricate. 
Now  all  is  quiet  and  deserted,  and 
the  visitor  would  find  the  plan  of  the 
grounds  concealed  beneath  a  thick 
mantle  of  snow,  and  he  could  not 
enter  the  palace  unless  he  could 
show  a  special  permit  from  the  proper 
official. 

Thirteen  miles  down  the  river  we 
come  to  a  series  of  low  flat  islands, 
the  group  being  about  one  mile  wide 
and  five  miles  long.  Here  is  lo- 
cated Kronstadt,  for  more  than  a 
hundred  years  the  port  of  entry  for 
St.  Petersburg.  The  harbor  is  di- 
vided into  three  sections,  one  of 
which  is  large  enough  to  accommo- 
date 1000  merchant  vessels.  This  is 
the  "Gibraltar  of  Russia,"  the  seat 
of  her  Baltic  fleet,  and  conceded  to 
be  the  strongest  fortified  city  in  the 
world,  now  the  chief  naval  station 
of  the  empire.  Commanding  the 
southern  channel,  which  is  narrow, 
is  the  famous  castle  built  by  Russia's 
great  founder,  which  more  than  once  has  kept  the 
great  navies  of  Europe  at  bay.  The  foundations 
of  this  fortress  are  on  a  sandbar,  but  still  are  most 
substantial.  The  Russians  tell  us  that  Peter  the 
Great  laid  these  foundations  on  ice,  in  the  winter 
of  1703.  He  built  huge  boxes  of  sound  hewn  tim- 
ber, and  loaded  them  with  stones.  When  the  ice 
melted  in  the  spring  these  boxes  sank  down  into 
the  sand  and  gave  a  sound,  substantial  base,  on 
which  this  famous  fortress  was  built.  With  the 
numerous  forts  and  batteries  on  the  opposite  island 
mounting  modern  guns  of  defense,  and  this  islet 
fortress,  the  fortifications  of  Kronstadt  are  prac- 
tically impregnable.  To  direct  the  pilot  through 
the  north  channel  is  a  lighthouse  at  the  northwest 
point  of  the  west  island. 

Our  steamer  now  heads  out  into  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


137 


land,  that  great  arm  of  the  Baltic,  which 
reaches  inland  250  miles  and  averages  be- 
tween sixty  and  seventy  miles  in  width.  It 
is  crossed  by  the  60th  parallel  of  north  lati- 
tude, and  until  the  days  of  the  ice-breaker  all 
its  harbors  were  closed  by  ice  from  late  'No- 
vember  to  the  middle  of  April.  It  receives 
such  a  volume  of  fresh  water  from  the  rivers 
that  drain  the  lakes  of  Finland  and  north- 
west Eussia  that  the  water  of  the  gulf  is  but 
slightly  salt,  and  cattle  readily  drink  it. 
Away  to  the  north  and  west  is  the  port  of 
Helsingfors,  the  capital  city  of  Finland ;  and 
near  it,  built  upon  seven  islands,  each  con- 
nected by  subterranean  tunnels  with  the  main 
fortress,  stands  the  remarkable  fortress  of 
Sweaborg,  considered  one  of  the  very  strong- 
est harbor  forts  ever  built.  It  is  on  the  south- 
em  shores  of  this  gulf  that  commercial  quan- 
tities of  amber  have  been  found. 

After  steaming  westward  several  hours  our  ves- 
sel rounds  out  into  the  Baltic,  and  with  her  bow 
southeast,  steaming  her  way  across  this  trackless, 
tideless  sea,  we  enter  a  moonless  winter  night. 

The  next  day  we  pass  to  the  south  of  the  mid- 
Baltic  island  of  Bomholm,  large  enough  for  four 
cities  of  commercial  size.  On  the  16th  we  reach 
Holtman,  on  the  Bay  of  Kiel,  950  miles  from  St. 
Petersburg.  This  port  is  the  eastern  entrance  to 
the  N'ortheast  Sea  Ship  Canal,  locally  called  the 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal.  Were  it  not  for  this  canal 
we  should  have  to  spend  three  days  steaming  around 
the  Jutland  Peninsula  to  Brunbiittel,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Elbe.  This  shows  the  great  commercial 
value  of  the  canal,  as  in  a  few  hours  we  pass  from 
the  Bay  of  Kiel  to  the  ^orth  sea,  and,  steaming 
up  the  river  sixty  miles,  reach  the  port  of  Ham- 
burg at  noon  on  the  I7th  of  the  month.  At  one 
of  the  many  docks  of  this  free  port  our  vessel  parts 
with  her  Hamburg  cargo  and  receives  a  consign- 
ment of  Christmas  toys,  chemicals  and  drugs  and 
decorated  ware  for  New  York. 


^^^^i.<l.;"^^; .  -     -  WK 

ff ||»|»fP»'-^  -   '.mm)-                           '■ 

■M 

Wti„fm»^.  ■        "^ji^^mw.      ■  jsmmr 

i#--  ** 

Great  Bridge  over  the  Elbe,  Hamburg,  Germany. 

This  city  was  founded  by  Charlemagne,  more 
than  a  thousand  years  ago,  and  was  one  of  the  lead- 
ing free  cities  of  mediaeval  times.  Hamburg  is 
connected  by  railway  with  all  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent, is  the  center  of  distribution  for  central  Eu- 
rope, is  a  noted  manufacturing  center,  contains 
one  of  the  three  great  shipyards  of  the  empire, 
and  is  the  greatest  commercial  port  of  continental 
Europe,  the  third  port  of  commercQ  in  the  world. 
Its  commerce  with  America  exceeds  that  of  any 
northern  port  city  of  Europe,  running  several  di- 
rect steamer  lines  to  our  Atlantic  seaboard.  These 
steamers  at  high  tide  can  come  up  the  river.  The 
city  is  intersected  by  numerous  canals,  and  in  the 
center  of  the  city  is  the  Alster  Basin,  a  sheet  of 
water  one  mile  in  circumference,  bounded  on  three 
sides  by  three  wide  streets  lined  with  stately  trees. 
In  the  winter-time  this  makes  an  excellent  skating- 
rink;  while  omnibus  steamers,  pleasure-boats  and 
snow-white  swans  contend  for  control  of  the  sur- 
face of  this  city  lake  in  summer. 

Early  the  next  morning  after  our  arrival  our 
steamer  drops  down  the  Elbe,  and,  passing  between 


138 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


In  the  Market,   Hamburg,  Germany. 

Cuxliaben  and  the  Island  of  Newwerk,  we  turn 
east  through  the  I^orth  sea  for  several  degrees. 
At  6  degrees  east  longitude  our  vessel  bends  to  the 
south,  keeping  well  to  sea  while  rounding  the  isl- 
ands that  inclose  the  Zuyder  Zee.  We  run  along 
the  coast  of  Holland  to  the  mouth  of  the  West 
Scheldt.  Entering  this  river  at  high  tide,  we  steam 
up  forty-five  miles  to  the  oldest  port  in  Europe  — 
Antwerp,  the  Flemish  home  of  Ruhens,  Vandyke, 
and  the  Teniers,  renowned  in  art.  All  the  docks 
are  built  of  stone,  and  when  one  knows  their  cost 
to  have  been  forty  million  dollars,  he  can  form 
some  conception  of  their  magnitude.  Belgium 
in  all  her  forty-two  miles  of  seacoast  has  not  one 
good  harbor,  and  nearly  all  her  sea  trade  therefore 
passes  through  this  port  on  the  Scheldt  river.  Al- 
though Brussels  is  the  capital,  Antwerp  is  the  cen- 
ter of  the  railway  and  canal  systems  of  the  nation. 
The  canals  drain  the  lowlands  and  constitute  the 
highways  of  this  nation.     This  makes  Antwerp  a 


great  distributing  point,  through  which  mill- 
ions of  dollars'  worth  of  freight  is  annually 
sent  to  Germany  and  Switzerland  as  well  as 
the  inland  cities  of  Belgium. 

Within  a  few  hours  our  steamer  has  un- 
loaded the  freight  brought  from  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  received  many  thousand  bolts -of 
the  celebrated  Brussels  lace  and  several  hun- 
dred barrels  of  glassware  for  Xew  York.  We 
learn  that  large  sugar  refineries  are  located 
here,  and  the  very  finest  carpet  and  lace  fac- 
tories. The  flax  fiber  for  the  lace  is  care- 
fully selected,  and  the  spinning  is  done  in 
dark  rooms,  always  with  a  certain  per  cent, 
of  moisture  and  kept  at  a  uniform  tempera- 
ture. This  special  care  in  quality  of  fiber 
and  character  of  work  makes  the  lace  cost 
from  twenty-five  to  fifty  dollars  per  yard. 

The  Cathedral  of  Antwerp  is  one  of  Eu- 
rope's most  celebrated  memorials  of  Gothic 
architecture.  Its  musical  chimes  consist  of 
eighty-six  bells.  Here  are  collected  master- 
pieces of  many  famous  painters:  a  Mecca  to 
the  art-loving  world.  All  this  country  is  cul- 
tivated like  a  garden,  and  the  soil,  being  largely 
alluvial  deposit,  yields  abundantly.  The  steamer 
coals  at  this  port,  for  Belgium  produces,  next 
to  England,  more  coal  than  any  other  Euro- 
pean nation.  The  low  mountains  in  the  south- 
east also  yield  zinc,  lead,  iron,  and  manganese 
in  commercial  quantities.  Although  this  na- 
tion is  not  as  large  as  Maryland,  it  has  six  times 
that  State's  population,  and  a  commerce  averaging 
two-fifths  of  our  whole  nation's  commerce.  We 
also  learn  that  Brussels  and  Mechlin  lace,  the  linen 
and  damask  cloth  of  Liege,  the  woolen  goods  of 
Ypres,  the  carpets  and  hosiery  of  the  whole  nation, 
compete  with  the  looms  and  factories  of  the  entire 
manufacturing  world. 

The  sun  is  on  the  horizon  when  we  pass  the 
Flushing  lighthouse  and  stand  out  again  to  sea. 
The  Xorth  sea  here  narrows  into  the  English  chan- 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


139 


nel,  for  it  is  but  ninety  miles  across  to  Har- 
wich from  the  Flushing  Light.  Near  the  port 
of  Calais  we  enter  the  narrower  part  of  the 
channel  —  21  miles  wide  —  known  as  the 
Strait  of  Dover.  After  the  passengers  had 
all  gone  to  bed  the  "  tramp "  entered  the 
English  "sleeve"  or  channel  (the  Franch 
call  it  La  Manche,  as  it  is  shaped  like  a 
sleeve),  and  encountered  a  stormy  sea.  Bear- 
ing to  the  left,  the  vessel  lowered  speed  and 
headed  south  by  southwest  for  a  hundred 
miles,  before  it  came  to  waves  of  more  mod- 
erate force  with  winds  more  subdued. 

The  next  morning  we  found  the  "  tramp  " 
at  one  of  the  finest  docks  in  the  world,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  in  the  port  that 
is  the  center  of  French  commerce  with  the 
United  States  —  Havre.  Stevedores,  we  saw, 
were  busy  taking  out  the  much-coveted 
furs  and  loading  drays  with  barrel  after 
barrel  of  petroleum.  We  go  up  in  the  lighthouse 
and  "  view  the  landscape  o'er."  ISTorth  of  us  rolls 
the  English  Channel,  over  100  miles  wide  at  this 
point.  To  our  left  is  the  River  Seine,  that  here 
enters  the  channel.  The  river  is  here  seven  miles 
wide,  affording  excellent  harbor  facilities.  This 
river  is  navigable  for  300  miles ;  ocean  steamers 
of  2000  tons  can  ascend  fifty-six  miles  to  Rouen. 
Inland  we  look  over  the  city,  that  Louis  XIV. 
caused  to  be  founded  at  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century ;  that  Francis  I.  fortified  and 
caused  to  be  made  a  port;  that  Louis  XVI.  or- 
dained ;  and  that  the  enthusiastic  French  declare 
to  be  the  finest  watering-place  in  all  their  nation 
with  its  many  hundreds  of  miles  of  coast. 

Yonder  you  see  the  shipyards  that  produce  the 
nation's  best  liners  and  men-of-war.  Near  by  is 
one  of  the  large  dry-docks,  515  feet  long  and  100 
feet  wide.  Beyond  the  dock  where  the  "tramp" 
is  unloading  is  the  L'  Eure  dock,  capable  of  ac- 
commodating many  hundred  vessels.  Farther  re- 
moved from  the  shore  we  see  the  School  of  Navi- 


"Pont  Alexander  III." — Most  splendidly  decorated  bndge  In  the 
worid — Expos  tion,    1900,   Paris,   France. 


gation,  with  its  observatory,  the  Commercial  court, 
and  upon  the  heights  commanding  both  sea  and 
river  the  new  forts.  Between  the  forts  and  the 
lighthouse  is  the  business  portion  of  the  city,  the 
site  of  many  large  manufactories  and  valuable 
shops.  The  120,000  people  of  this  city  have  made 
Havre,  next  to  Marseilles,  the  greatest  ocean  port 
of  France,  handling  nearly  lY  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  nation's  commerce. 

We  return  to  the  dock  where  our  vessel  is  load- 
ing her  French  cargo  for  New  York  and  immi- 
grants are  going  up  the  gang-plank,  taking  steer- 
age passage  across  the  sea.  We  find  Swiss  toys 
and  watches,  and  Parisian  dolls  and  silks,  consti- 
tute a  large  part  of  our  vessel's  new  cargo.  These 
are  Christmas  goods  for  the  American  market.  By 
far  the  largest  part  of  the  cargo  is  seen  to  be 
French  dolls.  One  firm  in  Paris  is  reported  to 
manufacture  2000  dolls  a  day,  while  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  this  one  commodity  in  Europe 
is  estimated  to  exceed  twenty-six  million  an- 
nually.    The  miscellaneous  articles  that  are  in- 


140 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


The  favorite  drive,   Avenue  Champs  Elysees,  from  the  /^rch 
Triumphs  to  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  Paris,  France. 

eluded  in  our  cargo  consist  of  wines,  perfumery, 
and  toilet  articles. 

We  long  for  a  run  up  to  Paris,  143  miles,  before 
we  sail  for  home,  but,  finding  that  the  "  tramp  " 
expects  to  "  clear  "  at  4  p.  m.,  know  that  we  cannot 
have  time  for  the  trip.  The  cargo  in,  the  "  tramp  " 
takes  on  1000  tons  of  coal,  provisions  for  her  pas- 
sengers, and  the  et  cetera  needed  for  an  ocean  voy- 
age. 

While  eating  dinner  at  a  French  cafe  we  see  a 
very  interesting  illustrated  article  on  provisioning 
a  transatlantic  liner.  The  facts  and  data  given  en- 
able one  to  form  some  conception  of  the  amount 
of  food  necessary  to  provision  a  large  passenger 
steamer  for  its  trip  across  the  ocean.  The  "tramp" 
could  take  only  a  few  hundred  passengers ;  the  one 
described  in  this  article  carried  1617  passengers 
when  her  quota  was  full.  The  following  articles 
we  read  as  going  into  the  ship's  larder: 


of 


1.  Meats. 

(a)  14  steers,  reduced  to  18,000  lbs.  of  beef. 

(b)  10  calves,  reduced  to  veal  (1200  lbs.). 

(c)  29  sheep,  reduced  to  mutton  (2200  lbs.). 

(d)  26  lambs,  reduced  to  meat  (1200  lbs.). 

(e)  9  hogs,  reduced  to  pork  (900  lbs.  pork,  600 
lbs.  ham). 

(/)1500  chickens,  geese,  and  ducks  (6000  lbs. 

poultry). 
(.9)  1700  lbs.  fish. 
(h)  400  lbs.  tongues,  sweetbread,  etc. 

Total    meat    foods    for    Atlantic    voyage, 
86,200  pounds  (43  tons). 

2.  Vegetables. 

(a)  Potatoes,  175bbls. 

(6)  Assorted  vegetables,  75bbls. 

(c)  Tomatoes  and  table  celery,  20  crates. 

(d)  Lettuce,  200  dozen. 

3.  Fruits. —  Assorted  fresh  fruits,  9000 
pounds  (4^  tons). 

4.  Bread,  Pastry,  etc. 

(a)  Flour,  8>^  tons  (90  bbls.). 

(6)  Yeast,  350  lbs. 

(c)  Oatmeal  and  hominy,  600  lbs. 

5.  Ice,  40  tons. 

6.  Eggs,  lYOO  dozen. 
T.    Ice  Cream,  1000  bricks. 

8.  Oysters  and  Clams,  14  barrels. 

9.  Liquids. 

(a)  Milk,  2200  quarts. 
(6)  Oream,  300  quarts, 

(c)  Drinking-vi^ater,  400  tons. 

(d)  Wines  and  liquors,  12,000  quarts. 
{e)  Beer  (in  kegs),  15,000  quarts. 

(/)  Beer  (in  bottles),  3000  bottles. 

This  led  us  to  realize  what  a  factor  in  food  com- 
merce a  great  seaport  like  Havre  must  be.  What 
a  market  its  shipping,  aggregating  3f  million  tons 
a  year,  must  make.  The  provisioning  its  hundreds 
of  ocean  liners  for  their  world  voyages  gives  em- 
ployment to  thousands  and  thousands  of  merchants, 
middle-class  men,  and  farmers. 

At  4  p.  M.  on  that  November  day  (November 
21st)  we  "cast  off"  and  clear  for  the  homeland. 
The  ride  down  the  English  Channel  is  a  "choppy" 
one,  and  a  storm  seems  brewing,  for  scudding 
clouds  cover  the  western  and  northern  horizon,  and 
night  seems  to  just  drop  right  down.  We  had 
hoped  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  Cherbourg  harbor,  fa- 
mous for  the  naval  duel  between  the  Alabama  and 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


141 


the  Kearsarge,  but  we  were  only  able  to  see 
the  harbor  lights  far  away  to  the  south  as  we 
passed  on  down  the  Channel. 

Just  after  midnight  our  vessel  encountered 
a  heavy  fog,  and  slowed  down  to  eight  knots 
an  hour.  At  regular  intervals  the  fog-whistle 
is  blown,  and  its  hoarse  note  banishes  sleep ; 
so  we  decide  to  get  up  and  try  the  deck.  The 
officer  of  the  deck  reluctantly  permits  us  to  do 
this,  as  he  considers  the  deck  of  a  rolling 
vessel  in  the  intense  darkness  a  dangerous 
place  for  passengers  not  accustomed  to  it.  He 
shows  us  a  sheltered  place  near  the  bow  on  the 
opposite  side  from  the  wind,  and,  enveloped 
in  heavy  winter  wraps,  we  try  to  "  hang  on  " 
and  sit  in  one  place.  All  around  is  inky 
blackness,  while  the  atmosphere  has  a  cold, 
clammy  feeling  that  sailors  say  generally  pre- 
cedes a  storm  at  this  season  of  the  year. 

Suddenly  we  see  far  ahead  and  to  the  right  a 
twinkling  star,  low  down  in  the  black  canopy  where 
sky  and  water  should  meet.  After  a  time  it  seems 
higher  and  brighter,  and  when  we  have  about  con- 
cluded it  is  a  morning  star,  the  officer  of  the  deck 
informs  us  that  it  is  the  "Eddy  Light  of  the 
Scilly  Islands."  It  is  our  last  landmark  this  side 
of  the  ocean,  and  is  in  the  most  dangerous  part  of 
the  Channel.     We  keep  well  to  the  north  of  it. 

Some  time  afterward  we  heard  another  fog- 
whistle,  well  to  the  west,  and  soon  lights  showed  a 
steamer  approaching.  When  several  miles  from 
us  her  searchlight  was  turned  in  the  direction  of 
our  fog-whistle  and  our  vessel  fell  within  its  ray. 
What  an  intense  light !  —  such  a  contrast  to  the 
Eg^^ptian  darkness  that  had  but  an  instant  before 
enveloped  us.  The  "  tramp's  "  steamer-lights  were 
flickering  candles  of  minimum  power  compared  to 
that  electric  searchlight  now  turned  upon  us.  When 
we  came  nearer  to  the  vessel  we  saw  that  from  stem 
to  stern  were  lights,  and  it  loomed  up  before  us 
like  a  swiftly  moving  mountain.  One  of  the  deck's 
crew  told  us  the  vessel  was  an  "  ocean  greyhound," 


The  boundless  Ocean  from  the  wild  and  dreary  Cliffs  of 
Land's  End,  England. 

a  through  liner  from  ISTew  York  to  Hamburg  —  the 
Deutschland.  As  it  passed  we  felt  its  speed  and 
force  in  the  waves  that  rolled  under  the  "  tramp," 
while  its  many-colored  side-  and  stern-lights  left 
a  vivid  picture  in  our  mind. 

The  Deutschland  passed  on  out  of  sight  in  the 
night,  but  it  left  a  train  of  thought  that  led  us  to  re- 
view the  wonderful  improvements  made  by  the 
marine  engineer  since  Symington  fitted  a  Watt's 
engine  to  drive  the  steam  paddle-wheel  of  the  Char- 
lotte Dundas  at  the  rate  of  six  miles  an  hour.  We 
see  the  glowing  accounts  printed  of  the  Savannah's 
wonderful  record  —  the  first  steamer  to  cross  the 
Atlantic.  This  was  in  1819,  and  the  steamer 
crossed  the  Atlantic  in  twenty-five  days,  using 
pitch-pine  for  fuel,  as  it  was  before  the  days  of 
coal.  She  had  reduced  the  time  from  four  to  six 
weeks  by  sailing-vessel  to  less  than  twenty-five  days 
by  steamer.  Now  at  the  opening  of  a  new  century 
we  see  the  specially  built  Viper  rush  through  the 
water  at  forty-two  miles  an  hour,  and  a  regular 
ocean  liner,  the  Deutschland,  which  has  just  passed, 
a  vessel  of  23,200  tons  burden,  plowing  through 


142 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


the  water  at  eighteen  knots  an  hour  —  and  then  not 
going  at  full  speed.  This  vessel  has  reduced  the 
time  from  the  Cherbourg  Mole  to  Sandy  Hook 
Lighthouse  to  five  and  one-half  days.  Her  log 
for  this  shows  her  daily  runs  on  a  certain  trip  to 
have  been  337,  566,  570,  570,  584,  and  423  knots. 
Her  average  speed  was  23.02  knots  per  hour. 

This  greyhound  gets  her  steam,  not  with  pitch- 
pine  like  the  pioneer.  Savannah,  but  with  coal, 
consuming  upward  of  500  tons  per  day.  As  she 
must  always  be  prepared  for  emergencies,  the 
Deutschland's  coal-bunkers  will  hold  5000  tons, 
and  her  officers  see  that  they  are  all  pretty  well 
filled  before  they  undertake  a  voyage. 

So  large  are  the  modern  Atlantic  passenger 
liners,  so  elegantly  are  they  furnished  and  so  ex- 
pensive is  their  service,  that  most  of  them  must 
earn  $80,000  each  trip  before  they  can  begin  to  net 
a  dollar  to  their  owners. 

Thus  our  thoughts  run  on  until  Morpheus  kindly 
relieves  us,  giving  mind  and  body  !N^ature's  best 
tonic  and  restorative  —  blessed  sleep. 

Late  the  next  morning  we  went  down  to  break- 
fast. The  steward  had  placed  a  frame  on  the  din- 
ing-table  to  secure  the  dishes  in  case  of  a  storm, 
and  foot-rests  under  the  table  enabled  one  to  main- 
tain his  seat  in  ordinary  weather.  There  were  but 
few  at  breakfast  this  morning,  and  just  as  we  were 
finishing  breakfast  the  wind  struck  the  ship.  Most 
of  us  were  shot  clear  under  the  table,  and  anointed 
vsdth  the  soups,  coffee,  etc.,  of  the  table,  while  en 
route.  Even  the  veterans  of  the  sea  found  it  an 
acrobatic  feat  to  keep  their  chairs.  It  was  the 
struggle  of  our  life  to  get  to  the  stateroom,  which 
was  finally  reached  by  going  "on  all  fours." 

A  northeaster  had  struck  the  "tramp."  The 
careful  sailors  had  removed  all  things  from  deck 
that  could  be  washed  overboard,  hatches  were 
closed,  and  the  crew  at  their  post  prepared  to  help 
the  ship  weather  the  gale.  The  previously  dark 
clouds  suddenly  seemed  to  break  up  into  great 
flakes  of  snow  that  filled  the  sky  and  were  blown 


everywhere  by  the  wind  that  now  roared  like  a 
powder-blast.  The  waves  seemed  mountain  high, 
and  our  vessel  would  rise  to  the  crest  of  a  wave, 
where  it  seemed  to  pause  for  a  moment,  trembling 
in  every  fiber,  and  then  plunge  down  into  the  trough 
below. 

Occasionally,  as  though  tired  of  this  ceaseless 
climbing  up  only  to  go  down  again,  our  boat  would 
"  ship  "  a  wave  —  deluging  the  deck  and  causing 
us  to  feel  that  we  were  in  a  diving-bell  headed  for 
the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Slowly  we  came  out  of  the 
trough,  and  w^hen  we  again  reached  the  crest  of  a 
wave  the  wind  joined  the  rushing  waters  of  the 
sea  and  tossed  the  "tramp"  about  like  a  cockle- 
shell. We  seemed  to  be  in  the  power  of  a  hundred 
Niagaras,  and  the  shifting  wind  was  blowing  great 
gusts  all  the  while. 

How  utterly  insignificant  man's  work  becomes 
when  tested  by  the  boundless,  omnipotent  sea !  We 
appeared  absolutely  at  the  mercy  of  wind  and  wave. 
The  boldest  in  our  number  were  filled  with  terror, 
and  would  have  given  their  "  bottom  dollars  "  to 
stand  on  the  solid  earth  once  more. 

We  seemed  to  see  the  flying  Dutchman,  his  sails 
in  shreds  and  the  whole  ship  icicled  by  the  winter 
storm,  blowing  through  his  trumpet,  imploring  us 
to  take  letters  home  for  him.  Like  him,  we  seemed 
to  be  beating  in  vain  and  Judgment  Day  near  at 
hand. 

But  our  captain  called  this  only  "half  a  gale," 
and  steamed  on  his  way,  guided  by  the  compass. 
For  twenty-four  hours  this  storm  raged,  and  then 
the  wind  lulled.  It  proved  to  be  "  the  calm  before 
the  storm,"  and  the  waves,  being  long,  gentle  swells, 
warned  the  experienced  seaman  to  be  on  the  alert. 

Just  before  midnight  we  entered  the  storm  area, 

with  the  wind  blowing  at  eighty  miles  an  hour. 

"  We  were  crowded  in  the  cabin, 
Not  a  soul  would  dare  to  sleep, — 
It  was  midnight  on  the  waters 
And  a  storm  was  on  the  deep," 

came  into  mind,  and  impressed  its  full  meaning. 

We  think  of  the  shipwrecks  we  have  read  of. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


143 


and  that  disastrous  hurricane  of  September 
9th,  1900,  seems  really  upon  us.  This  hurri- 
cane destroyed  the  city  of  Galveston,  Texas, 
and  damaged  shipping  from  there  to  Nova 
Scotia  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  its  effects 
being  felt  hundreds  of  miles  at  sea.  In  an- 
swer to  our  questions,  a  ship's  officer  said  we 
had  encountered  a  hurricane  at  sea,  the 
grandest  example  of  the  cyclone. 

The  largest  class  of  hurricanes  originate 
between  the  West-African  coast  and  the 
Windward  Islands.  Storms  originating  here 
move  west  across  the  ocean  to  the  American 
coast,  and,  being  deflected,  recurve  upon  Ice- 
land, Scotland  and  Norway,  or,  following  the 
African  coast-line,  they  lash  to  foam  the  Bay 
of  Biscay  and  are  lost  off  the  coasts  of  Portu- 
gal or  Britain. 

Navigators  at  sea,  from  the  reading  of  the 
barometer,  character  and  direction  of  the 
wind,  and  their  own  personal  experience,  learn  how 
to  avoid  the  storm-center,  and  if  in  mid-ocean  may 
take  advantage  of  the  wind  to  hasten  the  vessel's 
course.  The  waves  during  the  calm,  and  the  barom- 
eter as  well  as  the  veering  wind  of  the  hurricane, 
prepared  our  captain  to  so  direct  our  course  that  we 
passed  to  the  right  of  the  storm-center.  With  our 
fog-horn  blowing  every  half-minute,  the  howling 
wind  lashing  huge  waves  against,  around  and  over 
the  ship  until  it  quivered  and  creaked  and  groaned, 
sleep  was  banished.  Then  the  tramp  sprung  a  leak, 
and  the  thug !  thug !  of  the  steam-pumps  was  heard 
while  officers  went  below  to  repair  the  leaks. 

In  the  midst  of  the  roar  and  tumult  of  the  tem- 
pest there  came  the  questioning  appeal  of  the  skip- 
per's daughter: 

"Isn't  God  upon  the  ocean 

Just  the  same  as  on  the  land?  " 

Yes,  and  with  faith's  return  came  the  first  stanza 
of  Cowper's  hymn : 


Riili^ 

W1 

m  '^-^ 

^'"^ 

Great  heaps  of  wreckage  piled  high  by  the  mighty  waves.— 
Galveston  disaster. 

"God  moves  in  a  mysterious  way, 
His  vponders  to  perform  ; 
He  plants  his  footsteps  in  the  sea, 
And  rides  upon  the  storm." 

When  the  morning  sun  shone  out  the  storm  had 
passed,  and  once  more  we  were  permitted  on  deck. 
All  around  were  whitened  waves  many  feet  high 
and  as  many  feet  deep,  seemingly  running  like 
race-horses.  The  picture  was  surely  awe-inspiring, 
and  the  heavy  splash  of  an  occasional  wave  on  deck 
gave  us  some  idea  of  the  force  and  action  of  the 
hurricane-waves  of  the  night  before. 

These  storms  are  most  frequent  from  July  to 
October.  In  the  earlier  stages  they  are  from  25 
to  200  miles  wide,  but  in  the  course  of  several  days 
may  reach  a  diameter  of  1000  or  1200  miles.  Poey 
has  published  a  table  recording  365  hurricanes  on 
the  Atlantic  since  Columbus  sailed  across  it. 

To  our  question  of  the  ship's  location,  we  receive 
the  reply:  "41°  30'  north  latitude,  19°  46'  west 
longitude."      "  We    are    several    days    from    our 


144 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


course,"  the  mate  said,  "  but  we  were  lucky  to  get 
off  as  well  as  we  did.  Our  cargo  is  still  safe,  the 
leaks  are  stopped,  and  the  machinery  is  not  dam- 
aged. We  can  regain  our  course,  with  anything 
like  favorable  weather,  in  a  very  few  days.  We 
will  not  encounter  another  storm  this  trip,  and  need 
fear  nothing  until  we  reach  the  Newfoundland 
fogs." 

The  "  tramp  "  bore  N.N.W.  until  it  reached  the 
Northern  route,  followed  by  most  transatlantic 
steamers  from  August  to  January,  and,  turning 
into  the  course  of  west-bound  vessels,  bore  steadily 
on  her  way. 

Near  40  degrees  west  longitude  our  course  bore 
more  to  the  south  of  west,  and  after  a  day's  sailing 
we  came  to  the  region  of  the  Arctic  current.  For 
some  time  we  have  been  in  the  deep  blue  of  the 
Gulf  Stream.  Off  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  this 
ocean  current,  which  at  this  time  of  the  year  is 
from  15  to  30  degrees  warmer  than  the  surround- 
ing waters,  meets  the  Arctic  current,  which  is  nearly 
as  many  degrees  colder  than  surrounding  waters. 
This  meeting  of  a  cold  and  warm  ocean-current 
condenses  the  vapor  in  the  warm  air  of  the  Gulf 
Stream,  causing  the  fogs  that  are  so  constant  and 
such  a  menace  to  navigation  in  this  region.  After 
a  few  scores  of  miles  the  Arctic  current  turns  in 
toward  shore,  and  thus  for  several  hundred  miles 
there  is  a  clear  line  in  the  color  and  temperature 
of  the  water  which  marks  the  south-seeking  cold 
current  and  the  north-seeking  warm  current.  The 
Arctic  current  finally  disappears  beneath  the 
warmer  current,  while  the  Gulf  Stream  is  traced 
across  the  Atlantic,  tempering  the  shores  of  west- 
ern and  northern  Europe. 

This  current,  with  such  a  remarkable  influence 
on  climate,  crops,  and  commerce,  has  its  origin  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  As  it  passes 
Florida  strait  it  approximates  30  miles  in  width 
and  from  1500  to  2000  feet  in  depth,  with  a  tem- 
perature   approximating    25    degrees    centigrade. 


Off  Hatteras  the  Gulf  Stream  is  twice  as  wide  and 
a  third  as  deep,  and  its  temperature  from  8  to  10 
degrees  C.  warmer  than  surrounding  waters.  At 
about  forty  degrees  north  latitude  it  divides.  The 
larger  tropical  branch  goes  south  and  east,  enters 
the  tropical  waters,  is  deflected  by  the  African 
coast,  and  returning,  enters  the  north  equatorial 
current  near  latitude  10  degrees  and  longitude  40 
degrees.  The  other  branch  continues  as  indicated 
above.  The  Gulf  Stream  is  to  the  Atlantic  and 
Europe  what  the  Kuro  Sivo  or  Black  Water  is  to 
the  North  Pacific  and  North  America. 

Thanksgiving  Day  we  had  a  real  New  England 
dinner,  with  a  concert  in  the  evening.  On  the 
morning  of  December  7th  we  sighted  Sandy  Hook 
light-ship,  and  at  noon  we  reached  Ellis  Island, 
the  finest  immigrant  station  on  the  globe.  The 
United  States  Bureau  of  Immigration  has  already 
expended  one  and  one-half  million  dollars  in  build- 
ings, and  has  improvements  projected  that  will  cost 
as  much  more.  The  care  of  immigrants  is  intrusted 
to  some  200  faithful  attendants,  who  can  provide 
for  7000  arrivals  per  day.  These  employes  of  the 
Government  are  physicians,  interpreters,  clerks, 
matrons,  and  inspectors.  These  employ  such  assist- 
ance as  shall  be  needed  to  house  and  feed  the  immi- 
grant for  the  short  time  that  he  is  detained  at  the 
island.  Should  any  immigrant  be  unable  to  pay 
for  this  service,  he  is  fed  and  housed  gratuitously, 
the  Government  looking  to  the  steamship  company 
which  brought  over  the  poverty-stricken  stranger 
for  its  pay.  All  immigrants  who  cannot  show 
thirty  dollars  in  cash,  if  likely  to  become  a  public 
charge,  are  sent  back  to  the  country  from  which 
they  came.  From  six  to  ten  missionaries  are  sta- 
tioned here  to  look  after  the  spiritual  wants  of  the 
immigrants.  The  Government  has  set  apart  a 
large,  well-furnished  room  for  their  use,  and  pro- 
vides it  with  desks,  cabinets,  stationery,  and  such 
printed  matter  as  the  missionaries  require.  Here 
the  Havre  immigrants  disembark. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


145 


United  States  Em'grant  Station,  Ellis  Island,  New  York  Bay. 


Steaming  up  !N^orth  river,  our  vessel  reaches  her 
pier,  the  gang-planks  are  let  down,  and  we  stand 
on  the  dear  old  homeland  that  we  have  not  seen 
for  so  many  months.  We  left  Boston,  our  great 
New  England  center  of  commerce,  June  28,  and 
complete  our  commercial  trip  around  the  world 


by  entering  our  K^ation's  greatest  port,  the  second 
commercial  city  of  the  globe,  December  7th. 

"  Breathes  there  the  man  with  soul  so  dead 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said, 

This  is  my  own,  my  native  land  ! 
Whose  heart  hath  ne'er  within  him  burned, 
As  home  his  footsteps  he  hath  turned 

From  wandering  on  a  foreign  strand  ?  " 


On  the  Ocean, 


New  York  by  Moonlight. 


(146) 


PART  III. 

FACTS  FOR  LABORATORY  WORK. 


(147) 


CONTE:tfTS. 


Page. 

1.  Mineral  Commerce 149 

2.  Timber  Commerce 159 

3.  Economic  Plants 164 

4.  Furs  of  Commerce 184 

5.  Leather  Commerce 186 

6.  Improvements  in  the  Nile 188 

7.  Commercial  Museums 190 

8.  Natural  Features  that  Influence  Commerce 192 

9.  Colonies  of  the  Commercial  World 197 

10.  Comparative  Area  of  Nations 201 

11.  United  States  Mail  Connections  with  the  Com- 

mercial World 205 

12.  United  States  Weather  Bureau  Service 207 


FAOE. 

13.  Standard  Time 210 

14.  The  Coins  of  Commercial  Realms 211 

15.  The  Fives  of  Commerce 213 

16.  World  Cities  ranked  according  to  Population 219 

17.  Facts  about  American  Cities 220 

18.  Meaning  of  Geographical  Terms 223 

19.  Greatest  Commercial  Nations 224 

20.  A  Trip  Through  the  World's  Great  Pyramids ....  225 

I.  Mineral  Pyramids 225 

II.  Agricultural  Pyramids 226 

III.  Miscellaneous 227 

21.  State  Supplement 233 

22.  Index 241 


A  Short  Excursion. 


(148) 


MINERAL  COMMERCE. 


Xext  to  food  commerce,  with  its  vast  quantity 
of  freight  transported,  surpassing  in  money  value 
any  other  traffic,  is  the  mineral  commerce  of  the 
world.  Minerals  depend  upon  neither  climatic 
conditions  nor  the  physiography  of  the  country. 
All  life,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  depends 
upon  mineral  substances  for  many  essential  foods. 
Leaves  must  have  mineral  substance  to  form  ribs 
and  veins,  and  animals  must  have  mineral  matter 
to  form  bones  and  teeth.  Minerals  are  widely  dis- 
tributed, and  are  found  in  the  mountain,  on  the 
plain,  and  by  sea,  lake  and  river  shore.  Materials 
as  yet  unconsolidated,  that  have  been  washed  down 
from  hill  and  mountain  slopes,  composed  of  rocks 
containing  metals  or  ores  in  either  veins  or  irregu- 
lar dissemination,  are  called  superficial  deposits. 
The  precious  stones  of  Ceylon,  platinum  of  Siberia, 
"  stream  tin  "  of  Cornwall  and  Banca,  and  surface 
deposits  of  gold  in  Colorado,  California  and  Nome 
City,  illustrate  this  class. 

Many  useful  minerals  are  found  in  layers  or 
strata  or  are  veined  through  sedimentary  rocks  in 
certain  localities.  These  are  called  stratified  de- 
posits. Iron  ore  and  coal  are  most  frequently 
found  in  beds,  while  the  copper  in  sandstones  of 
Xew  Mexico  and  the  conglomerates  along  Lake 
Superior  illustrate  the  Veined  deposits.  Often 
these  stratified  deposits  have  been  changed,  by  vol- 
canic or  earthquake  action.  This  gives  what  some 
authorities  call  a  third  division  —  unstratified  de- 
posits. These  changed  beds  of  ore  are  now  believed 
to  have  been  originally  deposited  in  horizontal  lay- 
ers. These  layers  were  subjected  to  later  changes, 
as  the  iron  ores  of  Missouri,  Lake  Superior  and  the 
Alleghany  mountains  seem  to  indicate. 

A  mineral  that  possesses  certain  marked  physi- 
cal or  chemical  properties  is  called  a  metal.     The 


most  universal  characteristic  is  luster.     The  more 
important  and  useful  metals  are  as  follows: 

Name.  Date  of  Discovery. 

Gold Known  to  ancient  world 

Silver 

Mercury ! 

Copper 

Lead 

Tin 

Iron 

Bismuth Fifteenth  century 

Antimony Fifteenth       " 

Zinc Sixteenth       " 

Platinum 1736 

Nickel 1751 

Potassium 1807 

Sodium 1807 

Calcium 1808 

Aluminum 1827 

The  first  two  metals  are  of  such  value  in  the 
commercial  world  that  they  are  called  precious 
metals. 

When  a  metal  is  found  unalloyed,  or  not  mixed 
in  sedimentary  deposits,  it  is  called  native,  or  free. 
If  it  is  combined  with  some  other  substance  it  is 
called  an  ore. 

The  more  common  ores  show  oxygen,  arsenic  or 
sulphur  to  be  the  element  in  combination  with  the 
metal,  and  these  must  be  removed  and  the  metal 
purified  by  a  process  called  smelting.  One  of  the 
largest  smelters  in  the  world  is  at  Argentine,  Kan- 
sas, where  gold  and  silver  ore  from  certain  Colo- 
rado mines  is  refined. 

The  excavation  made  to  extract  minerals  from 
the  interior  surface  of  the  earth  is  called  a  mine. 
The  Egyptians  are  believed  to  have  been  the  earli- 
est miners.  Abraham,  the  father  of  the  Jews, 
twenty  centuries  before  Christ,  found  gold  and 
silver  in  common  use  among  these  people.  Rec- 
ords show  mines  of  copper,  silver  and  gold  to  have 
been  worked  by  these  people  in  both  Ethiopia  and 
Arabia,  in  remote  time.  The  most  energetic  mine- 
workers  of  antiquity  were  the  Phoenicians.    Many 


(149) 


150 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


centuries  before  Alexander  conquered  tlie  world, 
these  commercial  people  had  gold  and  silver  mines 
in  Sardinia,  lead  and  silver  mines  in  Spain,  and 
tin  mines  in  Cornwall  on  Briton  island,  while  their 
iron  and  copper  mines  were  scattered  throughout 
the  then  known  world. 

No  minerals  are  considered  accessible  that  are 
more  than  5000  feet  below  the  surface.  The  in- 
ternal heat  increases  about  one  degree  for  every 
53  feet  of  descent.  The  heat  a  few  thousand  feet 
below  the  surface  becomes  unbearable.  Ventila- 
tion and  drainage  are  factors  that  must  always  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  every  mine.  Shafts 
and  all  permanent  ways  must  be  carefully  pro- 
tected by  iron  pillars  or  well-seasoned  and  heavy 
timber  supports. 

In  the  study  of  each  mineral  the  following  out- 
line will  be  found  helpful : 

1.  Name  of  Mineral. 

2.  Origin. 

3.  Distribution  —  by  Countries. 

4.  How  Obtained. 

5.  Uses. 

6.  Instructive  Commercial  Facts. 

The  first  mineral  to  be  considered  is  coal.  Coal 
is  the  principal  fuel  used  in  smelting  ores,  in  man- 
ufacturing plants,  and  is  the  principal  fuel  of 
steamboats  and  steam  cars,  as  well  as  light,  water 
and  gas  plants.  Coal,  for  this  reason,  has  great 
economic  value.  Coal  is  a  compound  of  decom- 
posed woody  matter  with  inflammable  gases. 

Many  ages  ago,  more  than  600  species  of  large, 
fern-like  plants  were  growing  as  great  trees.  In 
the  course  of  time  these  fell,  and  before  they  had 
rotted  away,  were  embedded  in  the  earth.  As 
many  fossil  leaves  and  scales  of  these  plants  are 
found  in  nearly  every  coal  region  of  the  world,  it 
is  believed  that  coal  was  formed  from  the  trunks 
of  trees  and  these  tree-like  ferns  decomposing 
under  heavy  pressure.  These  trees  were  widely 
distributed'  during  the  warm,  moist  period  of  the 


earth's  development  called  the  Carboniferous  age, 
and  for  this  reason  coal  is  one  of  the  most  widely 
distributed  minerals. 

Man  was  led  first  to  study  coal  as  of  vegetable 
origin  from  peat.  If  a  mass  of  moss  and  roots  be- 
comes imbedded,  it  forms  peat.  In  regions  where 
summers  are  not  very  warm  and  where  fogs  are 
frequent,  the  partial  decay  of  large  beds  of  vegeta- 
tion forms  peat  bogs.  Peat  lands  are  found  in  Lab- 
rador, Newfoundland  and  Anticosti  on  the  North 
Atlantic  shores,  with  peat  from  three  to  ten  feet 
thick.  Peat  bogs,  within  our  own  nation,  are  found 
in  New  England,  northern  New  York,  Ohio,  Mich- 
igan, and  Wisconsin.  The  most  extensive  peat 
lands  are  found  in  Ireland  (one-half  of  Ireland 
is  peat  land),  Scotland,  England,  Sweden,  Russia, 
and  France. 

By  a  greater  pressure  and  a  longer  process  peat 
was  changed  to  lignite  or  brown  coal.  Lignite,  by 
pressure  and  heat,  was  changed  into  bituminous 
or  soft  coal.  Added  heat  and  still  greater  pressure 
is  believed  to  have  changed  bituminous  into  anthra- 
cite or  hard  coal.  Continued  heat  and  pressure 
changed  anthracite  into  graphite,  which  has  prac- 
tically no  inflammable  material  in  its  composition, 
and  therefore  will  not  burn.  Graphite  is  practi- 
cally pure  carbon,  and  is  not  classed  as  a  coal. 

Anthracite  coal  is  very  hard,  breaks  with  a  shell- 
like fracture,  has  a  shiny  black  luster,  and  contains 
a  large  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  a  small  per  cent, 
of  inflammable  substance.  For  this  reason  it  burns 
with  very  little  flame,  but  with  a  great  per  cent,  of 
heat. 

Bituminous  coal  has  a  cubical  fracture  and 
though  hard,  it  breaks  more  readily  than  anthra- 
cite, has  a  greater  per  cent,  of  inflammable  sub- 
stances, and  burns  with  a  bright  flame.  This  coal 
yields,  by  distillation,  coal  tar,  a  thick  tarry  liquid 
like  bitumen,  a  mineral  pitch.  For  this  reason  it 
was  named  bituminous  coal. 

These  classes  of  coal  are  not  fixed,  for  the  pro- 
portion of  carbon  varies  from  6.4  per  cent,  in  lig- 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


151 


nite  to  94  per  cent,  in  Pennsylvania  anthracite. 
The  inflammable  substances  vary  from  20  per  cent, 
in  lignite  to  1^  per  cent,  in  the  best  anthracite. 

The  discovery  of  coal  occurred  early  in  the  his- 
tory of  commerce,  twenty  centuries  ago.  Theo- 
phrastus,  a  Greek  scholar,  wrote  of  blacksmiths 
using  coal.  In  the  twelfth  century  the  mines  of 
Newcastle  sent  ship-loads  of  coal  to  London.  For 
this  reason  it  was  called  "  sea-coal "  for  centuries. 

Father  Hennepin,  while  exploring  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  discovered  coal  200  hundred  years  ago. 
The  first  coal  mines  in  our  nation  were  opened  near 
Richmond,  Virginia,  150  years  ago.  The  first 
man  to  use  anthracite  coal  was  Obadiah  Gore,  who 
lived  in  Wyoming  Valley,  Pennsylvania,  just  be- 
fore the  Revolutionary  War.  By  using  his  bel- 
lows he  found  the  anthracite  could  be  made  to  burn, 
and  he  then  used  it  exclusively  in  his  forge.  An- 
thracite was  first  sold  for  house  use  by  Col.  Shoe- 
maker. He  sold  a  small  quantity  at  Philadelphia. 
The  buyers,  failing  to  make  the  coal  burn,  procured 
a  warrant  for  Col.  Shoemaker's  arrest  as  an  im- 
postor. They  claimed  he  had  sold  them  black  stone 
for  coal.  It  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  that  hard  coal  was  used  to  any  great 
extent. 

England  used  to  be  known  as  the  world's  coal- 
field. The  State  of  Pennsylvania  has  as  much 
coal  as  not  only  England,  but  all  Europe.  Penn- 
sylvania has  not  to  exceed  one-tenth  of  our  nation's 
supply  of  coal. 

By  burning  out  the  gases  of  bituminous  coal, 
coke  is  made.  Thus  coke  is  a  refined  coal.  It  is 
valued  in  smelting  ores  and  the  manufacture  of 
steel  for  its  purity.  Separating  the  different  ele- 
ments of  coal  by  heat  is  called  distillation  of  coal. 
By  distillation  of  coal,  coal-tar,  ammonia,  paraffin, 
naphtha,  creosote,  aniline  (a  dye  product),  and  il- 
luminating gas  are  obtained. 

In  recent  years  beds  of  natural  coke  have  been 
found,  of  a  quality  superior  to  artificial  coke. 
Molten  lava  bursting  through  coal-beds  is  believed 


to  have  worked  the  change.  One  of  the  best  coke- 
beds  found  is  at  Funikitchen,  Hungary.  Coke 
deposits  have  recently  been  discovered  in  Mexico. 
N^atural  coke  is  of  a  dark-gray  color,  and  much 
closer  grained  than  the  oven  coke. 

The  rise  of  the  coal  industry  is  considered  a  safe 
index  to  the  world's  industrial  development.  It  is 
estimated  that  in  1860  the  world's  production  of 
coal  amounted  to  144  million  metric  tons.  In 
1900  the  world's  coal-bin  received  775  million 
metric  tons.  Modern  industry  depends  upon  coal 
and  coal  products  for  its  fuel  and  source  of  power. 
About  the  time  Columbus  discovered  America, 
England  discovered  her  supply  of  coal  and  iron, 
and  began  to  utilize  the  discovery.  Shortly  after 
this,  De  Gamo  found  the  route  to  India  via  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  the  monopoly  of  the  East-In- 
dian trade  was  wrested  from  the  Mediterranean 
ports.  This  caused  their  decline,  while  England's 
commerce  began  to  develop,  largely  due  to  her 
great  quantities  of  coal  and  iron.  For  400  years 
England,  with  12,000  square  miles  of  coal  terri- 
tory, as  a  coal-producer  led  the  world. 

England's  coal  is  largely  shaft  or  deep-mine  coal. 
These  shafts  are  often  from  2500  to  3000  feet  be- 
low the  surface,  with  veins  from  1|  to  2  feet 
thick.  The  coal  at  the  pit  in  England  costs  from 
65  to  70  cents  more  per  ton  than  our  coal  costs  us. 
^  large  amount  of  our  nation's  coal  is  drift  coal, 
and  veins  are  from  two  to  five  times  thicker  than 
the  English  veins  of  coal  where  shafts  have  to  be 
sunk. 

The  transportation  of  coal  for  domestic  use  in 
the  United  States  is  an  important  item,  owing  to  the 
great  distances  the  coal  is  transported.  Until  very 
recently,  coal  for  the  Pacific  States  had  been  im- 
ported from  Australia.  It  could  be  carried  by 
steamer  across  the  Pacific  cheaper  than  it  could  be 
transported  by  rail  over  the  mountain  ranges  to 
the  Pacific  coast.  The  discovery  of  extensive  coal- 
beds  in  Oregon  and  Washington  has  enabled  these 
Pacific  States  to  almost  supply  the  home  demand 


162 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Mechanical   Methods  of  Handling  Coal. 


since  1900.  Coal  is  transported  from  Pittsburg 
to  New  Orleans  by  stern-wheeled  steamers  towing 
supplemental  cargoes  on  large  barges.  Often 
a  single  steamer  conveys  20,000  tons  of  coal  down 
the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers  to  New  Orleans, 
2000  miles  from  the  "Iron  City."  This  tow, 
worked  by  a  few  men,  carries  as  much  freight  as 
3000  cars  drawn  by  100  locomotives  and  manned 
by  600  men.  The  cost  of  carrying  coal  by  water 
between  these  cities  averages  less  than  one-half 
a  mill  per  mile.  This  is  declared  to  be  the  cheap- 
est transportation  known  to  the  commercial  world. 

The  cheapest  and  easiest  coal-mining  known  to 
the  mining  world  is  in  China.  The  coal  in  some 
parts  of  the  empire  is  so  near  to  the  surface,  and 
labor  is  so  cheap,  that  it  is  mined  for  13  cents  per 
ton.  In  both  coal  and  iron  China  is  a  formidable 
competitor  with  England,  Germany,  and  the 
United  States,  for  the  Japanese  trade. 

Our  nation  has  192,000  square  miles  of  coal 
territory,  and  in  1899  passed  Great  Britain  in  the 
quantity  of  coal  mined. 

Below  are  the  three  groups  of  coal-producing 
nations.  The  yield  of  coal  indicated  in  Group  I 
shows  the  million  tons  for  1900;   Groups  II  and 


III  name  the  countries  in  rank,  and  give  the  sum 
total  per  cent,  of  the  world's  product  that  the  entire 
group  furnished  in  1900: 

I.  First  Order. 

1.  United  States , 26.8 

Per  cent,  of 
Natioii''s  Coal. 

(a)  Pennsylvania 52.0 

(b)  Illinois 11.8 

(c)  West  Virginia 9.5 

(d)  Ohio 8.4 

(e)  Alabama 3.0 

(/)  Indiana 2.2 

ig)  Iowa 2.  -f- 

{h)  Kentucky 2.0 

(i)    Wyoming 1.6 

(,;■)  Missouri 1.5 

(k)  Kansas 1.4 

(l)    Tennessee 1-3 

(m)  Washington 1.0 

Rest  of  States  less  than 1.0 

2.  Great  Britain 25.2 

3.  Germany 15.8 

These  three  nations  produce  four-fifths  of  the 

world's  coal. 

TI.   Second  Order. 

1.  Austria-Hungary, 

2.  France,  "121  per  cent. 

3.  Belgium, 

These  three  nations  furnish  three-fourths  of  the 
remaining  fifth  of  the  world's  coaJ. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


153 


>  4  per  cent. 


III.   Third  Okdee. 

1.  Russia, 

2.  Japan,  - 

3.  Xew  South  Wales, 

4.  India, 

5.  Canada, 

6.  Spain, 

7.  Transvaal, 

8.  Sweden, 

9.  New  Zealand, 

10.  Italy, 

11.  China, 

12.  All  other  countries, 
The  most  extensively  distributed  of  the  minerals 

is  iron.  It  is  seldom  found  in  nature  pure.  It  is 
usually  in  combination  with  non-metals.  It  is  an 
ingredient  in  rocks,  soils,  natural  waters,  and  is 
also  found  in  both  animal  and  vegetable  matter. 
The  iron  of  commerce  is  generally  obtained  from 
ifs  oxide  and  sulphide  ores.  England  uses  a  car- 
bonate known  as  argillaceous  iron  ore. 

The  iron  of  commerce  occurs  in  three  forms: 
cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  and  steel. 

Cast  iron  is  obtained  by  heating  the  ores  in  a 
blast  furnace.  The  iron  is  left  in  combination 
with  a  small  though  varying  quantity  of  carbon. 
When  the  molten  iron  comes  from  the  furnace,  it 
flows  down  the  hearth  through  a  channel,  into  the 
middle  of  a  large  bed  of  sand.  From  the  large 
channel  in  the  middle  of  the  bed,  extend  smaller 
ones,  and  from  these  extend  the  "  pigs."  The  pigs 
are  small  sand-beds  from  three  to  four  inches  wide 
and  about  three  feet  long.  At  stated  intervals  the 
furnace  is  opened  and  molten  iron  run  into  the 
"pigs"  to  cool.  For  this  reason  it  is  called  pig 
iron. 

Wrought  iron  is  obtained  from  cast  or  pig  iron 
by  reducing  the  amount  of  carbon  to  less  than  one 
per  cent.  This  is  done  by  means  of  a  reverberatory 
furnace,  which  bums  out  the  carbon  and  runs  im- 
purities off  as  slag  or  scoria.     The  metal  is  first 


formed  into  balls,  run  through  a  press  to  take  out 
remaining  scoria,  and  then  rolled  into  bars.  It  is 
now  the  malleable  iron  of  commerce. 

Steel  was  formerly  made  by  "  cementation." 
Bars  of  wrought  iron  embedded  in  charcoal  and 
inclosed  in  air-tight  boxes  were  heated  until  the 
carbon  of  the  charcoal  was  made  to  enter  into  com- 
bination with  the  wrought  iron  throughout.  This 
process  made  the  product  too  expensive  for  general 
use  in  manufactures. 

During  a  European  war  in  1854,  Sir  Henry 
Bessemer  began  experiments  in  refining  iron,  seek- 
ing a  better  material  than  cast  iron  for  the  heavier 
guns  then  coming  into  use.  He  had  a  large  con- 
verter made  in  London  for  changing  cast  iron  into 
steel.  Mr.  Bessemer  was  eminently  successful  in 
originating  a  process  of  obtaining  steel  from  cast 
ir<3»n  instead  of  wrought  iron.  This  Bessemer  pro- 
cess of  manufacturing  steel  takes  but  a  few  hours, 
where  the  "  cementation  "  process  requires  days. 

When  Mr.  A.  S.  Hewitt  received  his  Bessemer 
gold  medal  in  1890,  he  said:  "The  invention  of 
printing,  the  construction  of  the  magnetic  compass, 
the  discovery  of  America  and  the  introduction  of 
the  steam-engine  are  the  only  capital  events  in 
modern  history  which  belong  to  the  same  category 
as  the  Bessemer  process." 

This  process  that  has  created  the  present  age  of 
steel  is  clearly  shown  in  the  following  extract: 

"  From  two  to  six  tons  of  cast  iron  when  melted 
is  run  into  a  large  globular  vessel,  built  of  the  most 
infusible  substance.  ^Numerous  holes  in  the  bot- 
tom of  this  crucible  allow  a  strong  blast  of  air  to 
bubble  up  through  the  melted  metal.  A  most  vio- 
lent combustion  follows,  the  heat  of  which  keeps 
the  metal  in  a  fluid  state,  while  its  carbon  and  a 
small  part  of  the  metal  itself  are  burned  to  oxides. 
Too  much  carbon  by  this  process  is  removed  and 
a  quantity  of  cast  iron  is  added  to  restore  carbon 
enough  to  change  the  whole  mass  into  steel.  (Usu- 
ally steel  contains  from  ^  to  2  per  cent  of  carbon.) 


154 


COMMERCIAL  GEOORAPHY. 


The  crucible  is  then  tipped  upon  its  pivots  and  the 
molten  steel  run  off  into  molds.  Less  than  half  an 
hour  is  enough  to  change  these  tons  of  cast  iron 
into  cast  steel." 

The  leading  nations  in  the  production  of  pig 
iron  for  the  year  1900  rank  as  follows: 

1.  United   States 13| 

Per  cent. 

(a)  Pennsylvania 49 

(b)  Ohio 17 

(c)  Illinois 10 

(d)  Alabama 8 

(e)  Virginia 

(/)  Tennessee 

(g)  New  York 

{h)  Maryland 

(i)   Wisconsin  and  Minnesota . . 

(j)  West  Virginia 

(k)  Michigan 

(I)   Missouri  and  Colorado 

(m)  New  Jersey 

(n)  Kentucky 

(o)  North  Carolina  and  Georgia 

Connecticut 

Texas 

Massachusetts 

2.  Great  Britain 8f 

3.  Germany Y 


Less 
>than  3 
per 
cent. 


5.  Russia    2^ 

Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  iron  ore  of  our  nation 
is  furnished  by  the  Lake  Superior  and  the  North 
Carolina,  Georgia  and  Alabama  ore  regions.  Coal 
is  the  fuel  for  smelting  purposes,  and  the  ore  is 
transported  to  places  adjacent  to  coal-beds.  The 
lakes  furnish  cheap  transportation  of  Superior  ore, 
which  is  carried  down  to  Cleveland  and  Pittsburg. 

The  labor-saving  machinery  invented  within  the 
last  ten  years  has  reduced  both  time  and  expense 
of  mining,  loading  and  unloading  ore.  Steam 
drills,  steam  shovels,  traveling  cranes,  and  friction 
chutes,  make  ore-mining  and  ore  transportation  as 
much  a  science  to-day  as  ore-refining.  At  the  docks 
of  Duluth,  Two  Harbors,  Ashland,  Marquette  and 
Escanaba,  whaleback  freighters  carrying  6000  tons 
of  ore  have  been  loaded  in  two  hours.  Each  of 
these  ports  ships  annually  two  million  tons  of  iron 
ore. 


The  world's  production  of  steel  in  1900  in 
million  tons : 

1.  United   States 10.20 

(a)  Pennsylvania 60  per  cent. 

(b)  Ohio 21  per  cent. 

(c)  Illinois 12  per  cent. 

(d)  Alabama,  Maryland,  West  Virginia, 

North  Carolina,  Missouri,  Colorado, 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota, 
New  York,  and  New  Jersey  with  a 
small  per  cent,  in  the  order  named. 

2.  Germany   6.30 

3.  Great  Britain 4.93 

4.  France 1.50 

5.  Russia 1.00 

6.  Austria    75 

7.  Belgium    50 

8.  All  the  rest  of  the  world 1.67 

Steel  is  now  an  important  element  in  the  me- 
chanic arts.  It  is  used  in  rails,  cars,  bridges, 
frameworks  of  buildings,  implements,  household 
utensils,  and  machinery  of  all  kinds.  A  nation's 
consumption  of  steel  is  now  considered  a  barometer 
of  its  industries. 

The  greatest  iron  city  in  the  world  is  Pittsburg, 
Pennsylvania.  Here  we  find  the  United  States 
Steel  works  with  ten  mill  centers  with  a  capacity 
equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  entire  world's  produc- 
tion of  steel  in  1900.  It  owns  over  18,000  coke 
ovens,  and  80  blast  furnaces.  Here  are  also  lo- 
cated the  Westinghouse  plants,  established  by 
George  Westinghouse,  and  now  employing  12,000 
skilled  workmen,  who  annually  turn  out  thirty 
million  dollars'  worth  of  air-brakes,  switches,  elec- 
tric appliances  and  engines  of  all  kinds.  They 
manufacture  the  largest  gas-engines  known  to  the 
engineering  world.  At  Pittsburg  and  in  its  vicin- 
ity is  produced  24  per  cent,  of  the  nation's  pig 
iron,  34  per  cent,  of  the  nation's  Bessemer  steel 
ingots  and  castings,  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  total 
production  of  open-hearth  steel  ingots  and  castings, 
over  57  per  cent,  of  the  total  production  of  crucible 
steel,  39  per  cent,  of  total  production  of  all  kinds 
of  steel,  26  per  cent,  of  Bessemer  rails,  and  64  per 
cent,  of  total  production  of  structural  shapes. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


155 


Birmingham,  Alabama,  is  our  second  iron  city. 
Both  of  these  cities  have  quantities  of  coal,  coke 
and  limestone,  and  this  fact  has  located  at  these 
places  many  blast  furnaces  for  making  pig  iron. 

The  blast  furnaces  have  brought  the  steel  in- 
terests to  these  iron  centers.  A  blast  furnace  is 
cylindrical  in  form,  and  shaped  like  an  inverted 
cone.  It  is  made  of  solid  masonry,  and  is  from  50 
to  125  feet  high.  The  "charge"  is  made  up  as 
follows:  To  every  If  tons  of  iron  ore  nine-tenths 
ton  of  coke  is  used,  to  which  is  added  one-half  ton 
of  limestone.  This  is  poured  in  at  the  mouth  of 
blast  (top  of  funnel)  by  means  of  mechanical  lifts 
worked  by  compressed  air.  Hot  air  is  now  blown 
up  through  the  "  charge "  by  engines.  The  hot 
air  causes  gas  to  form  and  renders  more  intense 
the  heat  of  the  furnace.  The  gaseous  substances 
in  the  ore  and  limestone  pass  up  through  the 
"  stack,"  and  the  metallic  iron  melts  and  flows 
down  to  the  hearth.  The  limestone  unites  with 
the  earthy  substances  in  the  ore  and  forms  slag, 
which  is  drawn  off  at  stated  intervals  and  thrown 
away.  It  is  lighter  than  the  iron,  and  floats  on 
top  of  the  molten  iron. 

The  Homestead  steel  plant  is  the  largest  one  in 
the  world.  The  next  largest  plant  is  at  Ensley, 
Alabama.  Within  a  radius  of  three  miles  of  Ens- 
ley  are  seen  all  the  processes,  from  the  ore  and 
coal  to  the  best  steel  plate.  A  third  great  plant  is 
located  at  Pueblo,  Colorado,  employing  many  hun- 
dred men.  This  plant  is  especially  helpful,  as  it 
manufactures  the  steel  implements  used  in  the 
mining  industry. 

This  nearness  of  cheap  fuel  to  the  mined  ore,  ex- 
plains the  location  of  coke  ovens,  blast  furnaces, 
cement  works,  steel  plants,  and  numerous  molding- 
shops  of  cast  iron. 

Copper. 

One  of  the  most  important  metals  now  used  in 
the  arts  is  copper.  The  oldest  mine  in  the  Superior 
ore  regions  is  a  copper  mine.     This  mine  is  sup- 


posed to  have  been  operated  by  the  Mound  Build- 
ers. History  tells  us  that  the  copper  mines  of 
Sinai  were  worked  many  centuries  before  Christ. 

In  the  debris  of  centuries  have  been  found  ruins 
of  the  furnaces  and  crucibles  used,  the  tools  and 
.  huts  of  the  miners,  with  the  slag  and  cinders.  The 
copper  mines  of  Sinai  and  Lake  Superior  would 
indicate  that  copper  was  the  first  metal  used  by 
man. 

Copper  is  found  native  in  the  Lake  Superior  re- 
gion, Japan,  China,  and  Sweden.  The  ores  of  cop- 
per are  very  abundant  and  quite  widely  distrib- 
uted. 

Copper,  being  malleable,  ductile,  and  a  good 
conductor  of  heat  and  electricity,  is  quite  valua- 
ble in  the  mechanic  arts.  Alloyed  with  tin,  it 
makes  bronze  gun-metal  and  bell-metal.  Brass  is 
an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc,  and  is  next  to  iron  in 
its  use  in  the  mechanic  arts.  German  silver  is  an 
alloy  of  copper,  zinc,  and  nickel. 

The  richest  copper  mines  in  the  world  are  the 
mines  of  native  copper  along  Lake  Superior.  The 
Tamarack  mine  has  a  depth  of  nearly  a  mile.  The 
copper  obtained  here  is  often  in  very  curious 
crystalline  forms,  sometimes  in  branch-like  shapes 
similar  to  growing  plants.  In  one  Superior  mine 
a  mass  of  copper  was  found  that  weighed  400 
tons. 

Copper  is  used  in  household  utensils,  in  electro- 
typing  and  electroplating,  on  the  rolls  in  calico 
printing,  for  sheathing  vessels,  for  lightning-rods, 
and  is  also  quite  generally  used  for  transmitting 
electric  energy.  The  very  finest  copper  for  elec- 
trical purposes  is  the  Lake  Superior  copper. 

The  United  States  annually  produces  between 
240,000  and  270,000  tons  of  copper.  This  is  more 
than  50  per  cent,  of  the  world's  output  of  this 
metal.  The  richest  copper  mines  of  our  nation  are 
the  Cali^met  (Lake  Superior),  Butte  and  Ana- 
conda (Montana)  mines. 

The   leading  copper-producing  regions   are   as 


156 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


follows:  United  States,  Spain  and  Portugal, 
Japan,  Chile,  Germany,  Australia,  Mexico, 
Canada,  Russia,  and  the  Straits  Settlements, 
ranking  in  order  named. 

Gold. 

Gold  is  one  of  the  heaviest  and  most  pre- 
cious of  all  the  metals.  It  is  sometimes  found 
in  sand,  sometimes  fine  grains  are  scattered 
through  crystalline  rocks  in  veins  or  lodes, 
and  again  gold  may  be  found  in  "  nuggets  " 
or  large  grains  of  free  gold.  The  largest  nug- 
get ever  found  was  in  Australia.  This  is  reg- 
istered as  weighing  233^  pounds  troy. 

All  metals  were  once  in  a  molten  or  liquid 
state.  As  the  earth's  crust  cooled,  the  metals 
were  believed  to  have  collected  in  mass  forms. 
These  metal  centers  were  broken  up  by  the 
disintegration  of  the  rocks  and  upheaval  of  the 
mountains.  In  this  way  gold  particles  are  be- 
lieved to  have  been  washed  into  the  valleys,  where 
they  became  imbedded  in  the  gravel  and  sand  of 
rivers.  The  gold  is  obtained  by  washing;  this 
washing  process  is  called  "  placer  mining."  Where 
the  gold  is  scattered  through  gold-bearing  quartz, 
mercury  is  mixed  with  the  crushed  ore,  dissolving 
the  gold.  The  mercury  is  later  separated  from  the 
gold  by  filtration  and  distillation.  This  process  of 
amalgamation  is  generally  used  to  obtain  the  gold 
from  its  ore. 

Gold  is  prized  for  its  color  and  its  beautiful 
luster,  as  well  as  its  intrinsic  value,  which  is  ap- 
proximately $300  per  pound.  On  account  of  the 
slight  fiuctuations  in  its  universal  value,  gold  is 
the  standard  money  of  many  nations.  Pure  gold 
being  too  soft  to  use  in  coins,  it  is  alloyed  with 
copper.  Twenty  per  cent,  of  the  world's  output 
of  gold  is  used  in  the  arts. 

The  leading  gold-producing  States  are  Colorado, 
California,  South  Dakota,  Montana,  Utah,  Ari- 
zona, Nevada,  Idaho,  Oregon,  New  Mexico,  Wash- 
ington.    The  Territory  of  Alaska,  with  its  Klon- 


$4,000,000,  Gold  from  Nome  City,  in  boxes. 

dike  and  Cape  Nome  gold  fields,  raised  our  out- 
put of  gold  to  nearly  eighty  million  dollars'  worth 
per  annum. 

In  1883  gold  was  discovered  in  the  Transvaal  in 
South  Africa.  The  product  rose  from  $50,000  in 
1884  to  $55,000,000  in  1898.  The  Boer-British 
war  since  that  time  has  greatly  reduced  the  output 
of  the  Transvaal  mines,  which  are  believed  to  be 
the  richest  gold  mines  in  the  world. 

The  world's  total  output  of  gold  for  1900  was 
$257,000,000,  nearly  $50,000,000  less  than  the  pre- 
vious year,  due  largely  to  the  South- African  war. 

The  greatest  gold-producer  is  the  United  States, 
with  Australia,  Russia,  Canada,  Mexico  and  India 
following  in  order  named.  The  South-African 
mines  are  not  considered  in  this  tabulation,  their 
output  being  reduced  80  per  cent,  by  the  war  now 
being  waged  in  that  section.  The  Camp  Bird 
mine,  on  Mt.  Snifiles,  near  Ouray,  Colorado,  em- 
ploys 500  miners,  and  yields  its  owner,  Mr.  Walsh, 
$3500  gold  bullion  per  day,  according  to  the  U.  S. 
mint  records  at  Denver.  Mr.  Walsh  is  believed  to 
have  the  richest  gold  mine  this  side  of  Nome  City, 
Alaska. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


151 


Sliver. 

Silver,  like  gold,  is  a  precious  metal, 
and  was  known  as  a  money  metal  2000 
years  before  Christ.  To-day  it  is  a  coin 
metal  in  all  civilized  nations,  and  the 
money  standard  in  some  of  them. 

Silver  has  a  brilliant  luster,  is  mallea- 
ble and  ductile,  and  is  a  widely  distrib- 
uted metal.  It  has  strong  affinity  for  both 
sulphur  and  chlorine,  and  therefore  is 
quite  largely  found  as  a  sulphide  or  chlo- 
ride ore.  Silver  has  been  found  free  or 
native,  and  also  alloyed  with  gold. 

Masses  of  native  silver  from  50  to  500 
pounds  in  weight  have  been  found  in  the 
mines  of  Norway,  Saxony,  Bohemia, 
Hungary,  Peru,  and  Mexico.     These  in- 


stances are  rare,  however,  as  native  silver  usually 
is  not  found  in  such  large  masses. 

Silver  is  much  used  in  metallurgy,  in  vases, 
table-ware,  jewelry,  and  in  silver  leaf,  by  painters 
and  decorators. 

The  principal  silver  States  and  Territories  of 
our  nation  are:  Colorado,  Montana,  Utah,  Idaho, 
Arizona,  Nevada,  California,  New  Mexico,  Texas, 
and  Washington,  in  the  order  named.  The  world's 
silver  output  for  1900  w^as  the  largest  in  history 
of  silver  commerce — 179,000,000  ounces  troy. 
The  United  States  led  the  world,  producing  59^ 
million  ounces  troy ;  while  Mexico,  Australia,  Ger- 
many, Bolivia,  and  Spain  are  other  great  silver- 
producing  countries. 

Other   Mineral   Products. 

The  leading  nations  in  other  mineral  products 
are  given  according  to  the  statistics  for  1900: 

Mercury  (quicksilver). —  Spain,  United  States, 
Austria,  Mexico,  Russia. 

Zinc. —  Germany,  Belgium,  United  States, 
France. 

Lead. —  United  States,  Spain,  Mexico,  Great 
Britain,  Sweden,  Germany,  France,  India. 


Wheeling  Salt  to  the  Stacks,  Salt  Fields  of  Sofinen,  Russia. 

Bolivia, 


Tin. —  Straits     Settlements,     Banca, 
Great  Britain,  Tasmania. 

Nickel. —  New  Caledonia,  Canada. 

Platinum. —  Russia.  (Used  in  chemical  appa- 
ratus. Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  world's  output 
comes  from  Ural  mountains.) 

Salt. — United  States,  Great  Britain,  Russia, 
Germany,  France,  India,  Austria,  Spain. 

Sulphur. —  Sicily,  southern  Italy,  Mexico,  Cen- 
tral America,  and  all  important  volcanic  regions. 

Aluminum. —  The  United  States  furnishes  50 
per  cent,  of  world's  output.  A  refining  process 
since  1888  has  reduced  its  cost,  $8  to  $10,  to  30 
and  40  cents  per  pound. 

Mineral  Fertilizers. —  Phosphates  from  Florida, 
South  Carolina,  and  Tennessee;  nitrates  from 
Chile. 

The  clay  products  of  the  United  States  alone 
amount  to  nearly  sixty  million  dollars  annually. 
England,  France  and  Germany  also  have  extensive 
plants  manufacturing  stone-  and  china-ware,  brick, 
sewer-pipe,  drain-tile,  and  pottery  of  all  kinds. 

Slate  is  a  rock  easily  split  into  layers,  and  is 
much  used  for  roofing,  mantels,  blackboards,  slate- 
pencils,  etc.      The  richest  quarries  are  found  in 


16S 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Oil  Tanks  on  Fire 


Wales.  In  our  own  country  the  largest  quarries 
are  in  Pennsylvania,  but  the  finest  quality  of  slate 
comes  f  ron\  Vermont. 

Marble  is  crystallized  limestone,  and  is  much 
prized  as  a  building-stone  because  it  takes  a  high 
polish.  It  is  much  used  in  statuary,  monuments, 
and  as  a  building  material.  The  finest  quarries 
are  in  Italy,  the  islands  of  thef  Mediterranean  sea, 
and  the  United  States.  Vermont^  Georgia,  Ten- 
nessee and  Xew  York  are  the  leading  States  in  the 
marble  industry  in  our  nation,  ranking  in  order 
named. 

Petroleum  or  rock-oil  is  obtained  from  the  earth 
as  a  dark,  viscous  liquid.  While  it  was  known  to 
the  Asiatics  and  ancient  Greeks,  no  special  use 
was  made  of  it  until  the  middle  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, when  oil  was  found  near  Titusville,  Penn- 


sylvania, in  1859.  Since  then  the  world's  most 
important  lubricating  oils,  aniline  dyes  and  stains, 
kerosene,  benzine,  naphtha,  gasoline,  paraffin  and 
scores  of  other  commercial  products  are  distilled 
from  petroleum.  There  are  more  than  200  val- 
uable by-products  of  petroleum. 

The  crude  oil  is  now  being  used  as  a  fuel  on  lines 
of  railway  and  in  mechanical  shops.  The  great  oil 
fields  of  our  nation  are  principally  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, California,  Kansas,  and  Texas. 

The  oil  industry  has  grown  to  be  one  of  the  great 
industries  of  the  world.  The  greatest  oil-produc- 
ing regions  are  found  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
Caucasia,  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas. 

The  study  of  refining  petroleum,  pipe-lines,  oil- 
tank  centers,  tank  steamers  and  our  nation's  kero- 
sene commerce  may  here  be  profitably  taken  up. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


159 


TIMBER  COMMERCE. 


Bark   Products. 

A.  Cork.  The  cork  tree  of  commerce  is  a  spe- 
cies of  live-oak  (Quercus  suher).  This  tree  is  one 
of  the  few  trees  in  nature  that  yields  its  bark  and 
retains  its  life.  It  is  the  outer  bark  that  furnishes 
the  cork  of  commerce.  It  is  through  the  inner  bark 
that  most  of  the  sap  courses,  and  strippers  are 
careful  not  to  remove  this.  The  bark  of  the  cork 
oak  is  not  valuable  to  commerce  until  the  tree  is 
twenty  years  old.  The  cork  improves  in  texture 
with  each  stripping,  which  is  made  at  periods  from 
eight  to  ten  years  apart.  The  cuticle  or  outer  bark 
used  varies  from  half  an  inch  to  three  inches  in 
thickness. 

The  stripping  is  usually  jdone  in  the  dryest  mid- 
summer month.  This  is  usually  June  in.  regions  of 
cork-oak  groves.  The  trunk  and.  main  branches  of 
a  cork  tree  yield  fronii  50  to  500  pounds  of  cork 
bark.  The  amount  varies  according  to  the  age  of 
tree,  character  of  growth,  and  number  of  the  strip- 
ping. The  sap  in  the  bark  is  partially  evaporated 
by  exposure  to  sun  and  air  for  several  weeks,  and 
the  rest  is  extracted  by  boiling.  This  latter  process 
softens  and  flattens  the  bark.  The  woody  exterior 
that  cannot  be  used  is  now  scraped  off  and  the  cork 
made  ready  for  shipment  to  the  nearest  cork  ware- 
house. Here  the  cork  is  baled  according  to  thick- 
ness and  quality.  These  bales  are  mader  as  compact 
as  possible,  and  bound  with  hoops  of  steel  or  wire. 
They  are  now  shipped  to  the  world's  cork  factories 
to  be  worked  up  into  bottle-corks  of  all  sizes,  in- 
soles, bicycle  grips,  life-preservers,  linings  for  hats 
and  helmets,  pipe  covering,  and  many  other  useful 
things.  The  cork  scraps  are  ground  and  put 
through  a  consolidating  process,  becoming  the  gran- 
ulated cork  of  commerce.  This  is  much  used  in 
the  making  of  linoleum  and  lining  of  refrigerators. 

The  principal  cork-oak  groves  are  found  in 
Spain,  Portugal,  Algeria,  and  Morocco.     The  two 


largest  cork  factories  in  our  nation  are  situated 
at  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania.  One  of  these  fac- 
tories works  up  nine  million  pounds  of  cork  bark 
annually.  Cork  is  now  an  indispensable  element 
in  the  manufacturing  world. 

B.  Cinchona  Bark.  The  cinchona  tree  is  a  na- 
tive of  Peru  and  Ecuador,  but  is  now  being  culti- 
vated in  the  East  Indies.  Cinchona  plantations 
were  started  in  Java  by  ther  Dutch  Government 
in  1852.  These  plantations  now  supply  two-thirds 
of  the  quinine  of  commerce.  The  English  Gov- 
ernment has  established  cinchona  plantations  in 
India  that  are  now  yielding  a  profitable  revenue. 

The  cinchona  is  an  evergreen  tree,  and  numbers 
more  than  twenty  species.  Only  a  part  of  these 
yield  commercial  cinchona.  Certain  substances 
called  quina,  cinchona  and  quinidine  exists  in  the 
inner  bark  of  these  trees.  Quina,  from  w^hich 
quinine  is  obtained,  is  the  most  useful  of  these  sub- 
stances, and  stands,  next  to  opium  and  calomel,  the 
most  important  of  all  drugs.  The  people  of  the 
United  States  are  said  to  use  one-third  the  quinine 
of  the  world,  more  than  one  and  one-half  billion 
grains  being  imported  annually. 

C  Caoutchouc,  or  Gum  Elastic,  is  the  sap  of  the 
inner  bark  of  certain  trees  growing  in  South  Amer- 
ica, the  East  Indies,  and  Mexico.  The  tree  is 
tapped  by  boring  a  hole  in  the  trunk,  and  a  clay 
cup  is  placed  beneath  each  incision.  This  fluid 
is  thick  and  yellowish-white  at  first,  but  hardens 
and  darkens  as  it  is  exposed  to  the  sun.  The  col- 
lectors generally  hasten  the  drying  process  by  heat- 
ing over  a  fire,  which  gives  caoutchouc  its  black 
appearance. 

Mr.  Goodyear,  of  New  York,  in  1844  invented 
the  art  of  vulcanizing  rubber,  whereby  caoutchouc 
loses  its  adhesive  qualities,  is  not  affected  by  change 
of  temperature,   and  retains  its  desirable  elastic 


160 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


qualities.  This  is  done  bj  mixing  sulphur  with  the 
caoutchouc  and  subjecting  the  whole  to  great  heat. 

Electrical  appliances  and  water-proof  goods 
have  greatly  increased  the  demand  for  rubber. 

The  total  world  output  in  1900  was  57,500  tons, 
obtained  from  the  following  sources :        Amounts  in 

Thousand  Tons. 

Amazon  District  of  South  America 25 

Kest  of  South  America 3)^ 

Central  America  and  Mexico 2% 

East  and  West  Africa 24 

East  Indies 1 

Madagascar  and  Mauritius 1 

India  and  Ceylon 3^ 

The  manufactories  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  annually  use  21,000  tons;  Great  Britain, 
21,000  tons;  the  rest  of  Europe,  15,000  tons. 

Gutta-percha  is  the  milky  juice  of  a  tree  of 
India  and  the  Sandwich  Islands.  It  is  similar  to 
caoutchouc,  and  is  quite  largely  used  to  cover  sub- 
marine cables,  and  in  the  arts. 

"  The  barks  of  these  three  trees  yield  more  real 
value  to  man  than  all  the  jewels  and  precious 
stones  ever  dug  from  the  earth,"  for  they  give  him 
health,  wealth,  and  luxurious  comfort. 

Gums    and   Besins. 

A.  Gums.  Gums  are  exudations  from  trees, 
arising  from,  a  change  of  tissue  in  the  tree.  They 
are  quite  largely  used  in  stiifening  fabrics  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  mucilage  and  inks.  The  most 
important  gum  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  a 
species  of  acacia  tree  growing  in  Africa,  Arabia, 
Australia,  and  other  countries.  The  gums  are 
named  from  the  countries  producing  them ;    as, 

.gum  arable,  cape  gum,  gum  Senegal,  Australian 
gum.  East  India  gum,  gum  of^  Bassorah,  and  Per- 
sian gum,  or  gum  tragacanth. 

B.  Resins.  The  resins  are  widely  distributed, 
and  are  found  not  only  in  trees,  but  in  nearly  all 
groups  of  plants.  The  gums  are  carbohydrates, 
but  the  resins  are  hydrocarbons,  and  contain  vola- 
tile oils,  resinous  acids,  cellulose,  tannin,  and  many 
carbonaceous  substances. 

(a)  Gamboge  is  a  resin  obtained  from  a  small 


tree  growing  in  Ceylon,  Siam,  and  Cambodia.  It 
is  largely  used  in  coloring  varnishes,  is  the  yellow 
of  water-colors,  and  has  a  medicinal  value.  The 
plant  bears  a  luscious  fruit. 

(b)  Asafoetida  is  obtained  from  two  plants  in 
the  parsley  family.  These  plants  grow  in  south- 
western Asia,  in  the  region  extending  from  the 
Aral  sea  to  the  Persian  gulf.  The  plants  are  from 
six  to  seven  feet  high,  and  often  form  vast  forests. 
In  the  east  the  resin  is  pulverized  and  used  as  a 
condiment  for  flavoring  sauces  and  foods.  It  has 
a  commercial  value  as  an  important  drug. 

(c)  The  turpentines  of  commerce  are  princi- 
pally obtained  from  coniferous  trees  growing  in 
Europe  and  Xorth  America.  The  turpentine  is 
found  in  the  inner  bark  and  in  the  wood.  The 
finer  kinds  are  thin  and  clear,  and  are  used  in  med- 
icine. The  poorer  kinds  of  turpentines  are  thick 
and  cloudy,  and  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
varnish,  resin,  sealing-wax,  soap,  and  many  other 
substances.  Resin  is  the  mass  left  after  the  vola- 
tile oils  have  been  driven  off  by  distillation.  Tar 
is  largely  obtained  from  the  roots  and  wood  of 
turpentine  trees.  From  tar  are  obtained  pitch, 
oil  of  tar,  creosote,  paraffin,  and  aniline.  Turpen- 
tine "  farms  "  are  extensively  worked  in  our  South 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast  States.  The  business  of 
"yarding"  'and  stripping  the  resin  products  of 
the  long-leaf  pine  belt  is  the  principal  industry  of 
many  cities  of  this  region. 

Myrrh  is  a  resin  obtained  from  a  small  tree 
growing  in  Arabia.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  medic- 
inal articles  known.  The  odor  is  pleasant  and  the 
medicine  is  much  used  in  the  East. 

Balm  of  Gilead,  or  Mecca  balsam,  is  also  ob- 
tained from  an  Arabian  tree  of  the  myrrh  family. 
It  is  largely  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  per- 
fumery and  in  medicine.  The  Turks  use  it  in 
ointments  and  cosmetics. 

The  finest  of  all  turpentines  is  obtained  from 
the  balsam  fir.  It  is  called  Canada  balsam,  and 
is  much  used  in  microscopy  and  the  arts. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


161 


A  Washington  Sawmill. 


Mastic,  sandarac,  giim  lac,  copal  and  balsam  of 
tolu  are  important  commercial  resins. 

{d)  "  Kauri  gum  "  is  believed  to  be  a  fossil  resin 
of  the  kauri  tree  of  New  Zealand.  Whole  forests 
of  this  tree  are  believed  to  have  once  covered  north- 
ern New  Zealand.  The  ravages  of  fire  and  natural 
decay  gradually,  through  the  centuries,  killed  out 
the  trees,  and  the  fossil  resin  found  in  great  quan- 
tities five  or  six  feet  underground  is  thus  accounted 
for.  The  exudations  of  living  trees  have  no  com- 
mercial value. 

Camplior. 

This  is  a  commercial  product  of  a  species  of 
laurel  tree  growing  in  China,  Japan,  and  Formosa. 
The  tree  is  cultivated  in  these  countries  for  orna- 
ment as  well  as  its  commercial  product.  Japanese 
law  now  requires  that  a  camphor  tree  be  set  out  for 


every  one  cut  down.  In  one  village  in  western 
Japan  is  a  group  of  thirteen  camphor  trees  about 
100  years  old,  so  well  proportioned  and  beautiful 
that  they  are  the  pride  of  that  region.  Camphor 
trees  have  been  found  fully  fifteen  feet  in  diame- 
ter and  300  years  old.  In  obtaining  camphor  the 
trees  are  cut  —  roots,  stems,  trunk  and  all  —  into 
chips  and  boiled.  The  sap  and  oil  are  thus  ex- 
tracted from  the  wood,  and  going  up  with  the 
steam,  dome-shaped  covers  collect  the  vapor,  which 
is  conveyed  to  a  condensing  vessel.  The  oil  is 
pressed  out  of  the  deposit  obtained,  and  leaves  the 
camphor  gum  of  commerce. 

liumber. 
The  greater  part  of  the  world's  lumber  comes 
from  Canada  and  the  United  States.     The  princi- 
pal trees  from  whose  saw-logs  lumber  is  made  are 


162 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


pine,  cypress,  fir,  spruce,  cedar,  hemlock,  oak,  hick- 
ory, walnut,  maple,  elm,  ash,  poplar,  sycamore,  Cot- 
tonwood, beech,  birch,  chestnut,  cherry,  California 
redwood,  rosewood  and  mahogany  of  the  tropics, 
ebony  of  Madagascar  and  Ceylon,  the  jarrah  woods 
of  Australia,  and  the  kauri  trees  of  Xew  Zealand. 
The  greatest  lumber-producers  of  Europe  are  Rus- 
sia, Sweden,  Norway,  and  Austria.  The  lumber 
regions  of  North  America  are  Canada,  United 
States,  and  the  West  Indies.  Argentine  and  Brazil 
represent  the  forests  of  South  America.  Australia 
and  New  Zealand  are  also  important  lumber-pro- 
ducers. The  largest  output  of  lumber  in  our  nation 
is  from  the  Great  Lake  region.  For  this  reason 
we  find  the  center  of  the  American  furniture  and 
vehicle  industries  here,  near  the  chief  source  of 
raw  materials.  Michigan  leads  in  the  production 
of  lumber  and  shingles.  The  other  lumber  States 
of  this  region  are  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota.  Sag- 
inaw, in  1890,  was  the  lumber  center  of  our  nation, 
but  the  cutting  away  of  forests  in  advance  of  the 
young  timber  in  the  eastern  portion  of  this  timber- 
belt  has  reduced  Saginaw's  lumber  commerce,  and 
to-day  Minneapolis  is  the  lumber  city  of  our  na- 
tion, and  is  believed  to  be  the  greatest  lumber 
market  in  the  world.  The  yearly  lumber  commerce 
of  this  city  is  nearly  600  million  feet. 

The  domestic  freight  traffic  of  our  nation  for  a 
year  aggregates  as  follows: 

Products  of  agriculture,  50  million  tons. 
Products  of  animals,  13  million  tons. 
Products  of  mines,  227  million  tons. 
Products  of  manufactures,  50  million  tons. 
Merchandise,  20  million  tons. 
Lumber,  48  million  tons. 

Next  to  coal,  lumber  is  the  greatest  single  ele- 
ment of  domestic  commerce  of  our  nation. 


The  by-product  of  the  saw-mills  is  utilized  in  the 
paper-pulp,  toothpick  and  spool  industries, 
the  Penobscot  river   in   Maine   are  many 


Along 
mills. 


grinding  millions  of  feet  of  small  logs  into  pulp, 
and  from  this  product  manufacturing  paper.  In 
Maine  are  also  located  the  nation's  greatest  spool 
factories.  These  factories  furnish  the  spools  for 
the  thread-mills  of  England  and  the  United  States. 
Over  90  per  cent,  of  the  wooden  toothpicks  used  in 
our  nation  come  from  Franklin  county,  Maine,  and 
are  made  of  white  birch.  The  principal  toothpick 
factories  outside  of  Maine  are  in  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Massachusetts.  The  best  toothpicks 
made  in  the  world  come  from  Portugal.  They  are 
whittled  out  of  orangewood  by  peasant  girls. 

Canada  has  the  largest  spruce  forests  in  the 
world.  In  the  forests  of  Canada  are  located  many 
large  saw^  and  pulp-mills.  The  former  turn  out 
millions  of  feet  of  lumber,  while  the  latter  turn 
out  thousands  of  tons  of  pulp,  many  mills  having 
a  capacity  of  250  tons  of  pulp  per  day.  Canada 
has  121  species  of  native  trees,  26  being  of  great 
commercial  value.  Canada's  forest  area  is  so 
great  that  it  was  awarded  the  leading  country  in 
forest  resources  by  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1900. 

The  per  cent,  of  forest  land  in  the  total  area  of 
each  State  in  the  Union  is  here  given  in  order  of 
rank : 


1.  Arkansas M 

2.  Maine 79 

3.  Alabama 74 

4.  North  Carolina 73 

West  Virginia 73 

5.  Georgia 71 

Washington 71 

6.  Mississippi 70 

Florida 70 

7.  South  Carolina 68 

8.  Michigan 67 

9.  Minnesota 66 

10.  Tennessee 65 

Indian  Territory 65 

11.  Louisiana 62 

12.  Missouri 60 

13.  Wisconsin 58 

Virginia 58 

New  Hampshire 58 

14.  Oregon 57 

15.  Kentucky 55 

16.  Massachusetts 52 

17.  Pennsylvania 51 

18.  Maryland 44 

19.  Vermont 43 

New  Jersey 43 


20.  Idaho 42 

21.  Rhode  Island 40 

22.  Connecticut 39 

New  York 39 

23.  Delaware 36 

24.  Colorado 32 

25.  Indiana 30 

26.  Montana 29 

27.  Texas 24 

28.  Ohio 23 

29.  Arizona 22 

California 22 

30.  District  of  Columbia,  20 

31.  New  Mexico 19 

32.  Illinois 18 

33.  Utah 13 

Wyoming 13 

Iowa 13 

34.  Oklahoma 11 

35.  Kansas 7 

Nevada 6 

Nebraska 3 

South  Dakota 3 

38.  North  Dakota 1 

The  whole  United  States 

( including  Alaska ) . .  37 


36. 
37. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


163 


Geographical   divisions  of  timber-belts  in  our 
nation  in  order  of  commercial  importance: 


Rank. 

Name. 

States  Included. 

Kind  of  Lumber. 

1 

The  Lake  Region 

Mich.,  Minn.,  Wis., 
la..  III. 

White  pine  and 
hemlock. 

3 

Thx  Southern  Region  . . . 

Va.,  N.  C,   S.  C, 
Ga.,   Ala.,    Fla., 
Miss., Tex.,  Ark., 
Mo.,  Tenn.,  Ky., 
W.  Va. 

Long-leaf  pine, 
short-leaf  pine, 
cypress,  and  the 
hard  woods. 

3 

New  England  and  North 
Atlantic  States 

Me.,    N.   H.,    Vt., 
Mass.,  R.  I., 
Conn.,  N.  Y., 
N.J..Del.,Penn. 

Spruce,  birch,  hem- 
lock, of  Me.,  pine, 
hickory  and  oak, 
of  the  rest. 

4 

The  Central  Region 

Ohio,  Ind.,  part  of 
111. 

Hard-wood  lumber. 

5 

The  Pacific  Region 

Alaska,  Wash.,  Ore., 
Calif. 

Redwood  of  Calif., 
fir,  cedar,  and 
pine. 

6 

Rocky  Mountain  Region. 

All  the  Rocky 
Mountain  States. 

Pine,  aspen,  cot- 
tonwood,  and 
spruce. 

On  account  of  the  spoliation  of  vast  areas  of 
American  forests  the  Federal  Government  has  in- 
augurated a  systematic  policy  to  preserve,  pro- 
tect and  develop  forest  reserves.  Within  the  last 
ten  years  thirty  forest  reserves  have  been  made  by 
the  Government  and  placed  under  the  care  of  the 
General  Land  Office.  These  reserves  aggregate 
sixty  million  acres  of  forests  lying  in  the  States  of 
Arizona,  California,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Montana, 
Washington,  Oregon,  'New  Mexico,  South  Dakota, 
and  Wyoming.  In  this  way  the  Government  seeks 
to  secure  the  preservation  of  our  forests  and  in- 
crease the  commercial  supply  of  timber. 


■jK- 

.p ' '  ji{flHH|H^K 

1 

^<^E|^^|| 

g 

^^^^1 

Largest  Tree  in  Amer  ca — Grisly  Giant,  Mariposa  Grove,  California. 


164 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Papyrus,  from  which  Paper  was  first  made  and  takes  its  name. 
China. 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS. 


It  is  estimated  that  of  the  more  than  150,000 
species  of  plants  growing  on  the  earth,  4200  are 
used  for  commercial  purposes.  These  supply  food, 
provide  shelter,  furnish  fiber  for  clothing,  are  use- 
ful to  the  mechanic  arts  or  give  valuable  medicinal 
elements.  Some  of  the  most  important  plants  are 
named  below,  and  their  location  and  use  to  man 

indicated. 

Grasses. 

Grasses  grow  wherever  there  is  found  suffi- 
cient soil,  moisture,  and  warmth  to  sustain  plant 
life.  The  most  widely  cultivated  member  of  the 
grass  family  is  — 

1.  Rice.  This  is  a  staple  food  of  nearly  one- 
third  of  mankind.  It  grows  in  subtropical  and 
tropical  regions,  thriving  best  in  low,  marshy 
lands  along  the  seacoast.  The  food  product  is  the 
berry,  while  the  straw  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  paper. 

2.  The  Cereals  furnish  the  grains  of  commerce, 


and  are  largely  used  for  food  for  man  and  beast 
in  the  temperate  zone  regions. 

(1)  Wheat  is  a  native  of  Asia,  but  was  brought 
to  South  America  in  the  sixteenth  century.  From 
there  it  has  been  carried  to  all  of  the  Americas. 
Wheat  is  now  gro\\Ti  from  the  subpolar  to  the  sub- 
tropical regions,  in  both  the  Occident  and  the 
Orient. 

Within  or  contiguous  to  the  great  wheat-belts 
are  found  flouring-mills  that  grind  the  wheat  ker- 
nels and  separate  the  product  into  hran,  shorts, 
and  bolted  flour.  By  a  certain  process  is  made  the 
whole-wheaten  or  "  Kalston  "  flour.  A  large  num- 
ber of  breakfast  foods  are  now  being  made  from 
wheat ;  the  largest  mills  of  this  industry  being  lo- 
cated in  the  United  States,  in  the  northwest  wheat- 
belt  region.  Wheat  for  either  flour  or  breakfast- 
food  purposes  is  graded  at  the  grain  elevator,  and 
numbered  as  to  quality ;  all  the  very  best  for  flour 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


165 


purposes  rating  Xo.  1,  the  next  No.  2, 
and  so  on.  This  grading  is  marked  on  the 
bins  in  the  elevators,  and  the  wheat  is  sold 
to  the  mills  or  foreign  dealers  bj  grade  as  • 
1^0.  1,  No.  2,  or  No.  3  wheat.  Very  large 
wheat  elevators  are  found  not  only  at  Min- 
neapolis and  Chicago,  but  at  Buffalo,  where 
the  lake  freighters  must  transfer  their  car- 
goes to  canal-boats  or  cars  for  the  Boston 
or  New  York  shipments.  This  is  done 
through  the  machinery  of  the  elevators. 

The  fifteen  greatest  wheat  States  of  our 
Union  in  1900  are  here  named  in  order 
of  rank:  Kansas,  Minnesota,  California, 
Texas,  Pennsylvania,  Nebraska,  Iowa, 
Washington,  Missouri,  South  Dakota,  Illi- 
nois, Maryland,  Oklahoma  Territory,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Oregon. 

(2)  The  Indian  corn  or  maize  crop  is 
a  very  important  one  since  science  has 
opened  so  many  valuable  uses  for  corn. 
This  cereal  is  a  native  of  America,  being 
cultivated  by  the  Indians  when  Columbus  discov- 


The  First  Reaper— McCormick's. 


The  Largest  Hop  Market  in  the  World,  Niirnberg,  Bavaria,  Germany. 


ered  the  New  World.  The  explorer  took  back 
some  samples  of  this  grain 
to  Spain.  This  nation  later 
introduced  the  cultivation  of 
this  cereal  to  the  rest  of  Eu- 
rope. 

In  America  this  is  an  im- 
portant food  element  for  man 
and  beast,  but  in  Europe 
until  quite  recently  it  was 
only  used  as  a  food  for  stock. 
Now,  corn  meal  is  being  used 
in  rye-  or  wheaten-flour  mix- 
tures by  peasants.  It  is  a 
cheaper  and  more  nutritious 
food  than  the  proverbial 
"black  bread."  Science  has 
proven  that  the  pith  of  the 
corn-stalk  is  the  most  service- 


166 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


In  the  Great  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  U.  S.  A. 

able  "  padding  "  that  can  be  placed  underneath  the 
nickel-steel  armor-plate  of  war-vessels.  It  swells 
when  wet,  and  this  quality  renders  it  valuable 
should  a  ball  pierce  through  the  plate,  as  the  pith 
will  swell  to  fill  the  hole  made  by  the  ball  and  keep 
the  water  from  rushing  in,  while  it  forms  a  spongy 
bed  to  break  the  force  of  the  bullet.  This  corn- 
pith  padding  is  used  in  sheets  four  inches  thick 
underneath  the  armor  on  all  modern  war-ships. 
The  corn-stalk  fiber  furnishes  the  very  finest  of 
cellulose  obtainable.  From  the  kernel  so  many 
different  foods  can  be  obtained  that  our  Govern- 
ment sought  to  increase  the  sale  of  this  cereal  in 
Europe,  by  publishing  the  different  ways  in  which 
corn  can  be  used  as  a  table  food.  A  corn-book  of 
120  recipes  was  published,  and  corn  Icitchens  es- 
tablished in  European  expositions  to  show  how  to 
cook  and  serve  corn  foods. 


The  manufacture  of  glucose 
from  corn  has  changed  the  im- 
portation of  European  glucose 
and  grape-sugar  of  several  mill- 
ion pounds  in  1884  to  an  impor- 
tant article  of  export  commerce 
for  our  nation  in  1900,  since  200 
million  pounds  are  exported  at 
the  present  time,  and  many  mill- 
ions more  are  consumed  in  do- 
mestic uses.  Great  Britain 
alone  purchases  160  million 
pounds  of  corn  glucose  from  our 
factories  yearly.  The  principal 
products  of  the  glucose  facto- 
ries that  are  being  found  of 
great  commercial  value  are  here 
given : 

(a)  Glucose,  used  by  refiners 
of  table  syrups,  manufacturers 
of  jelly,  confectioners,  and 
brewers. 

{h)  Sugars,  used  by  ale  and 
beer  brewers  and  apothecaries. 

(c)  Starches,  used  by  cotton  and  paper  manu- 
facturers, baking-powder  manufacturers,  confec- 
tioners, and  laundrymen. 

(d)  Refined  Grits,  used  in  place  of  brewers' 
grits  with  satisfactory  results. 

(e)  Flourine,  used  by  mixers  of  flour,  without 
detriment,  save  that  a  corn  product  takes  the  place 
of  a  wheat  product. 

(/)  .Dextrines,  used  by  fine-fabric  workers, 
paper-box  makers,  mucilage  and  glue  makers,  con- 
fectioners, and  apothecaries. 

{g)  Stock  Foods:  Gluten  meal,  corn  bran, 
mixed  feed,  and  corn  oil-cake. 

{h)  Corn  Oil,  used  by  table-oil  and  lubricating- 
oil  mixers,  paint  manufacturers,  textile-fabric 
makers,  and  leather  dressers.  From  the  com  oil, 
by  a  vulcanizing  process,  a  rubber  substitute  is  ob- 
tained.    This  corn  rubber  can  be  adapted  to  all 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


167 


the  uses  to  which  Para  or  India  rubber 
is  put,  from  bicjcle  tires  to  linoleum. 
The  five  refineries  of  corn  oil  now  in  our 
nation  annually  consume  twenty  million 
bushels  of  corn. 

Distilling  spirits  from  corn  is  a  larger 
industry  than  the  glucose  manufactories. 
The  new  smokeless  powder  mills  use  corn 
spirits  in  the  manufacture  of  smokeless 
powder,  and  Great  Britain,  Japan,  France 
and  Germany  are  buying  thousands  of 
barrels  of  corn  spirits  for  their  powder- 
mills. 

These  new  uses  of  corn  not  only  in- 
crease the  acreage,  but  enhance  the  value 
in  the  market  of  this  staple  crop  of  our 
nation. 

The  fifteen  States  that  are  the  greatest 
producers  of  corn  in  the  United  States  are 
given  in  order  of  rank  for  the  crop  of  1900 : 
Illinois,  Iowa,  Nebraska,   Missouri,   Kansas,   In- 
diana, Texas,  Ohio,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Geor- 
gia,   Arkansas,    Alabama,    North    Carolina,    and 
Wisconsin. 

(3)  Eye  is  found  wild  in  the  arid  regions  near 
the  Caspian  sea.  It  grows  in  regions  too  cold  for 
wheat,  as  well  as  in  the  more  temperate  climate. 
It  is  the  principal  grain  food  of  many  people  in 
northern  and  central  Europe.  The  "  black  bread  " 
of  the  German  and  Russian  peasants  is  made  of 
rye.  This  grain  is  extensively  used  in  making 
whisky  and  the  straw  is  used  for  plaiting. 

(4)  Oats,  Dr.  Johnson  defined  as  "  a  grain  used 
to  feed  horses  and  Scotchmen."  It  is  supposed  to 
be  a  native  of  Asia,  and  grows  best  in  the  cooler 
regions  of  the  temperate  zone.  Russia,  United 
States,  Germany,  France,  Great  Britain,  Austria, 
Canada,  Sweden  and  Denmark  are  the  principal 
oat  regions,  ranking  in  order  named.  Oat-meal  is 
so  extensively  eaten  in  our  nation  that  many  large 
oat-mills  have  been  built,  rivaling  the  capacity  of 
many  flouring-mills. 


A  Barley  Harvest,  near  Bethlehem,  In  Judea,  Palestine. 

(5)  Barley  grows  wild  in  Sicily,  parts  of  Asia, 
and  in  some  regions  of  the  United  States.  Barley 
is  the  hardiest  of  all  the  cereals.  It  is  not  only  an 
article  of  food,  but  is  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  ale,  porter,  and  beer.  'The  kernel 
is  steeped  in  water  until  it  sprouts.  It  is  then 
quickly  dried  in  a  hot  dry-kiln,  and  becomes  the 
malt  of  commerce,  from  which  all  malt  liquors  are 
made.  Barley  can  be  raised  in  regions  too  hot  for 
wheat  and  too  cold  for  rye  or  other  cereals.  The 
leading  barley  nations  are  Russia,  Austria,  Ger- 
many, Great  Britain,  France,  Canada,  ]S[orway, 
and  the  United  States. 

(6)  Buckwheat  is  a  native  of  Asia.  It  was 
brought  to  Europe  by  the  Saracens,  hence  on  that 
continent  it  is  quite  generally  known  as  Saracen 
wheat.  The  kernel  resembles  a  beechnut,  and  its 
common  name  is  believed  to  be  a  corrupted  form 
of  "  beech  wheat."  Buckwheat  flowers  profusely, 
and  the  flower  contains  a  large  per  cent,  of  honey. 
This  makes  it  an  important  plant  in  bee  culture. 
The  kernel  is  valuable  for  the  large  per  cent,  of 


168 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Tyrolese  Haymakers,  Val  Ampezzo,  Austria. 

starch  which,  it  contains.  It  is  not  a  wheat,  al- 
though the  kernel  is  ground  into  flour  and  used  to 
make  the  "griddle-cakes"  of  winter,  used  in 
northern  climes.  Buckwheat  will  grow  on  poor 
soils,  matures  rapidly,  and  does  not  exhaust  the 
soil.  It  is  raised  in  Russia,  Germany,  France, 
Spain,  England,  Tartary,  Egypt,  and  the  United 
States. 

3.  Sugar  Cane  is  a  native  of  Asia.  It  now 
grows  in  all  warm  regions.  The  plant  is  perennial, 
yielding  a  good  quality  of  sugar  until  eight  to  ten 
years  old.  Then  the  tops  of  the  old  canes  are  cut 
off  and  planted,  forming  a  new  plantation.  The 
canes  grow  from  three  to  twelve  feet  high,  and  the 
pith  contains  a  sweet  juicy  substance.  When  the 
canes  are  matured  they  are  cut  down  and  the  juice 
removed,  boiled  and  crystallized  as  the  cane  sugar 
of  commerce.  The  native  sugar  is  of  a  yellowish- 
brown  color,  and  the  juice  that  remains  in  a  liquid 
state  after  the  brown  sugar  has  crystallized  is  the 
molasses  of  commerce.     By  the  use  of  chemicals 


and  processes  of  remelting  and  mold- 
ing, the  various  grades  of  loaf,  granu- 
lated and  powdered  sugars  of  commerce 
are  obtained.  One  of  the  largest  sugar 
refineries  of  the  United  States  is  sit- 
uated at  JSTew  Orleans'.  That  makes 
New  Orleans  a  world  sugar  mart.  A 
single  plantation  and  manufacturing 
company  has  three  groups  of  sugar  mills 
in  Louisiana,  and  averages  twenty  mill- 
ion pounds  of  sugar  and  500,000  gal- 
lons of  molasses  yearly.  The  largest 
sugar  refinery  in  the  world  is  situated 
on  East  river,  Brooklyn,  New  York.  It 
covers  five  city  blocks.  The  most  im- 
portant cane-sugar  plantations  are  in  the 
West  Indies,  the  Gulf  States,  and  in 
Hawaii.  The  best  canes  are  raised  in 
the  West  Indies,  yielding  35  per  cent, 
more  sugar  than  either  Hawaii  or 
Louisiana  cane. 
4.  Bamboo  is  a  kind  of  tree-like  grass  found  in 
southern  Asia  and  in  the  West  Indies  as  well  as 
the  East  Indies.  It  often  grows  to  a  height  of 
forty  to  fifty  feet,  and  in  diameter  may  vary  from 
a  few  inches  to  four  and  even  five  feet.  The  seeds 
of  this  plant  are  edible,  although  it  requires  thirty 
years  for  the  plant  to  reach  the  blossoming  period. 
A  famine  in  certain  Oriental  districts  is  sometimes 
averted  by  the  general  flowering  of  this  grass.  In 
one  bamboo  jungle,  that  flowered  in  1864,  50,000 
came  to  the  jungle  and  camped  for  weeks,  gather- 
ing the  seeds  for  food.  The  bamboo  is  the  national 
plant  of  China,  where  its  young  shoots  are  boiled, 
dried,  and  made  into  sweetmeats  by  confectioners ; 
the  roots  serve  many  purposes,  while  the  hollow 
stem  is  the  staple  lumber  and  tiling  of  their  do- 
mestic commerce.  It  is  the  principal  constructive 
material  for  houses,  masts  of  ships,  water-pipes, 
canes,  furniture,  water-wheels,  pens,  and  many 
other  useful  articles.  While  Asia  shows  over  100 
species,  Africa  shows  but  one,  America  one,  and 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


169 


Europe  none.  Many  cities  of  Burmah  are 
built  exclusively  of  bamboo  —  like  Ran- 
goon and  Prome. 

5.  Hay  Crops.  There  are  a  great  many 
grasses  that  are  used  for  hay,  but  prob- 
ably those  of  greatest  commercial  value  are 
clover,  alfalfa,  timothy,  Hungarian  grass, 
and  wild  or  prairie  grass.  The  hay  is 
compressed  into  bales,  and  in  this  way 
reaches  the  great  arteries  of  trade.  It  is 
the  most  important  of  "rough  feed"  for 
stock  known  to  commerce. 

The  nation's  hay  crop  for  1900  num- 
bered 50  million  tons,  valued  at  445  mill- 
ion dollars.  The  fifteen  leading  hay  States 
were  as  follows   (the  yield  in  thousand 

tons)  : 

1.  Iowa 5,006 

2.  Kansas 4,031 

3.  New  York 3,351 

4.  Missouri 2,768 

5.  California 2,708 


A  Cuban  Farmer  Carrying  Grass  to  Market,  Province  of  Havana. 


The  Hay  Market,  Galway,  Ireland. 

6.  Pennsylvania 2,672 

7.  Nebraska 2,639 

8.  Illinois  2,119 

9.  South  Dakota 2,064 

10.  Colorado   1,781 

11.  Michigan  1,727 

12.  Oregon  1,677 

13.  Indiana 1,663 

14.  Ohio 1,652 

15.  Minnesota  1,428 

The  Palm  Family. 

This  family  ranks  second  in  the  com- 
mercial importance  of  its  products,  and 
numbers  1000  species.  There  is  scarcely 
a  species  that  is  not  in  some  way  useful 
to  man.  The  home  of  the  palm  is  within 
the  tropics,  in  regions  of  great  heat  and 
abundant  moisture.  One  species  of  palm 
is  native  to  southern  Europe  and  four  are 
native  to  our  Southern  States, —  the  cab- 
bage, saw,  blue,  and  dwarf  palmetto  trees. 
These  five  species  are  almost  the  only  ones 
in  this  large  family  that  are  found  beyond 
the  tropics.  The  palm  wood  is  used  for 
building  purposes;  the  leaves  to  make 
thatched  roofs,  fans,  mats,  hats,  and  use- 


170 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Cocoanut  Trees  in  the  White  Sands  of  Flonda. 

fill  house-utensils;  the  fiber  for  clothing  and 
paper  material;  and  the  fruit  is  a  highly  nutri- 
tious food. 

The  Sago  of  commerce  comes  from  a  palm  that 
grows  in  Siam  and  the  East-Indian  Archipelago. 
This  palm  is  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet  high.  The 
stems  of  these  palms  contain  a  soft  white  pith. 
This  is  treated  mechanically,  yielding  starch 
grains.  These  starch  grains  on  being  treated  are 
converted  to  a  paste,  the  sago  of  the  market.  This 
Caryota  palm  has  leaves  that  yield  a  fiber  much 
used  in  making  ropes  and  mats,  while  its  flower- 
spikes  yield  wine  and  sugar. 

The  Rattan  Palm  of  the  Malay  peninsula  grows 
from  100  to  300  feet  high.  Its  fruit  is  edible, 
while  its  stem  is  used  by  the  natives  for  many 
purposes;  Europe  and  America  use  the  canes  in 
chairs  and  sofas  and  for  walking-canes. 

The  Peach  Palm,  a  native  of  Venezuela,  yields 


a  fruit  that  is  an  important  food  element 
in  the  region  w^here  cultivated. 

The  Date  Palm,  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant members  of  the  palm  family.  It 
is  found  in  Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  Persia, 
and  China,  principally.  Our  nation  annu- 
ally imports  from  fifteen  to  twenty  million 
pounds  of  dates.  Great  Britain,  Turkey, 
British  East  Indies  and  China  furnish  us 
with  most  of  our  dates. 

The  Cocoanut  Palm  stands  at  the  head 
of  this  great  family  of  useful  plants. 
Every  part  of  this  tree  —  roots,  stem, 
leaves,  and  fruit  —  is  useful  to  man.  It 
thrives  best  along  the  seashore  and  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  ocean ;  and  the  trop- 
ical regions  of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic 
oceans  are  centers  of  cocoanut  commerce. 
These  palms  begin  yielding  cocoanuts  when 
six  to  eight  years  old,  and  continue  yield- 
ing fruit,  on  an  average,  for  sixty  to  sixty- 
five  years.  The  average  yield  is  75  to  100 
nuts  per  tree  each  year.  These  nuts  furnish  food 
for  millions  of  people,  and  the  albumen  of  the  nut 
contains  a  valuable  oil  used  in  soap  and  candle 
manufactories.  These  two  facts  make  this  nut 
an  important  article  in  the  world's  commerce. 
Many  of  the  Pacific-islanders  remove  the  albu- 
men of  the  cocoanut  and  dry  it  in  the  sun,  and  sell 
it  as  copra  or  dried  cocoanut  meat.  It  usually 
takes  from  75,000  to  80,000  nuts  to  make  one  ton 
of  copra.  Our  nation  annually  imports  from 
600,000  to  800,000  of  these  nuts.  For  the  past 
few  years  our  chief  sources  of  supply  have  been 
the  West  Indies,  Colombia,  Honduras,  Nicaragua, 
and  French  Oceanica. 

The  Tuber  Family. 

This  includes  many  common  garden  vegeta- 
bles—  the  beet,  turnip,  radish,  parsnip,  carrot, 
onion,  the  indispensable  potato,  the  yam,  and  the 
manioc  or  manihot. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


171 


The  Beet  of  commerce  is  the  sugar  beet,  the 
juice  of  this  tuber  yielding  from  12  to  18  per  cent, 
of  sugar.  K'apoleon  Bonaparte  introduced  into 
France  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  beets.  To- 
day more  than  half  the  world's  sugar  is  obtained 
from  the  beet.  By  dialysis  or  diffusion  the  sugar 
molecules  in  the  beet  are  obtained,  and  the  use  of 
steam-pipes,  the  vacuum  method  and  the  centrifu- 
gal machine  has  greatly  reduced  the  time  and  ex- 
pense of  sugar-making  and  refining.  There  are 
many  large  beet-sugar  factories,  located  princi- 
pally in  California,  J^ebraska,  Utah,  and  Virginia. 
Tall  upright  cylinders,  each  with  a  capacity  of  two 
to  three  tons,  are  filled  with  sliced  beets.  Eight  of 
these  cylinders  constitute  a  series.  By  the  diffu- 
sion process  the  molecules  of  sugar  are  obtained, 
and  the  water  that  finally  flows  from  Xo.  8  con- 
tains the  sugar  procured  from  the  whole  series. 
A  ton  of  beets  yields  from  260  to  280  pounds  of 
pure  sugar.  The  capacity  of  the  American  fac- 
tories is  from  30  to  300  tons  of  beets  per  day.  The 
mangel-wurzel  {Beta  maritima)  is  the  sugar  beet. 

The  Potato  is  a  native  of  America,  and  was 
cultivated  by  the  Andean  Indian  governments  long 
before  Columbus  discovered  the  New  World.  Sir 
John  Hawkins  is  said  to  have  brought  the  potato 
to  England,  in  1563.  It  took  nearly  one  hundred 
years  to  teach  European  nations  that  the  potato 
was  a  valuable  article  of  food.  To-day  it  is  Eu- 
rope's largest  food  crop.  At  a  European  centenary 
exposition  in  1886  there  were  shown  the  varieties 
of  potatoes  cultivated  in  Europe,  They  numbered 
500  species.  On  account  of  this  tuber  being  a 
staple  crop  of  Ireland,  soon  after  its  introduction 
into  Europe  it  was  named  the  Irish  potato.  The 
potato  thrives  best  in  a  temperate  climate.  The 
potato  crop  of  1900  for  our  nation  was,  in  round 
numbers,  211  million  bushels.  The  fifteen  States 
producing  the  greatest  number  of  bushels  are  here 
named,  with  the  yield  in  thousand  bushels : 

1.  New  York 27,481 

2.  Michigan 16,631 

3.  Wisconsin 15,620 


4.  Illinois 15,296 

5.  Iowa 14,004 

6.  Ohio 12,561 

7.  Pennsylvania 10,921 

8.  Missouri 10,107 

9.  Nebraska 9,664 

10.  Indiana 9,060 

11.  Minnesota 8,636 

12.  Kansas 7,246 

13.  Maine 6,200 

14.  Vermont 3,305 

15.  West  Virginia 3,029 

The  nation's  potato  crop  for  1900  was  valued 
at  ninety  millions  of  dollars. 

The  potato  belongs  to  the  same  botanical  fam- 
ily that  tobacco,  capsicum,  the  egg-plant  and  the 
tomato  do. 

The  Sweet  Potato  is  not  a  potato,  but  is  a 
tuber  of  the  morning-glory  family.  It  was  one  of 
the  presents  that  Columbus  brought  Queen  Isa- 
bella from  the  New  World.  It  has  been  thought 
that  this  was  the  potato  spoken  of  by  Shakespeare 
and  other  early  English  writers,  rather  than  the 
Irish  potato.  The  Chinese  are  reported  to  have 
cultivated  the  sweet  potato  from  very  early  times ; 
hence  this  plant  may  be  a  native  of  the  Orient  as 
well  as  the  Occident.  The  sweet  potato  thrives 
best  in  a  subtropical  or  tropical  climate,  although 
it  is  a  profitable  crop  now  in  States  as  far  north 
as  Michigan  and  New  Jersey.  The  South- Atlantic 
and  Gulf  States,  with  New  Jersey  and  Virginia, 
furnish  the  greater  part  of  the  sweet  potatoes  of 
domestic  commerce. 

The  Yam  is  a  tropical  plant  related  to  the  sweet 
potato,  and  is  cultivated  in  southern  temperate 
climes  as  a  food  product,  the  same  as  the  sweet 
potato. 

The  Manioc  plant  is  a  woody-stemmed  plant 
with  parsnip-like  roots,  indigenous  to  tropical 
America.  The  starch  from  the  roots  is  the  Bra- 
zilian arrow-root.  The  ground-up  root  is  cassava. 
This  is  by  the  natives  mixed  with  water  and  baked 
in  thin  cakes  as  cassava  bread.  By  moistening 
the  starch  obtained  from  the  roots  of  this  plant, 
granulating  it  and  heating  on  metal  plates,  the  tap- 
ioca of  our  mother's  pantry  is  obtained.     The  root 


172 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Carrying  Bananas  to  Market,  Jannaica,  W.  I. 

from  which  tapioca  comes  is  poisonous,  as  it  con- 
tains prussic  acid,  but  this  is  either  squeezed  out 
with  the  water  of  the  tuber  or  evaporated  when 
cassava  and  tapioca  are  made;  so  both  food  ele- 
ments are  absolutely  free  of  the  poison. 

The  Fruit  Family. 

1.  Figs.  This  is  probably  the  earliest  known 
fruit;  is  a  native  of  Asia,  and  is  counted  one  of 
the  most  valuable  of  fruits,  being  used  both  as  a 
food  and  for  medicinal  purposes.  It  is  now  cul- 
tivated throughout  southern  Europe  and  in  parts 
of  our  own  nation.  The  best  figs  come  from 
Smyrna,  but  the  Agricultural  Department  of  our 
nation  has  found  a  certain  Asiatic  insect  that  fer- 
tilizes the  fig  blossom,  and  is  now  seeking  to  grow 
Smyrna  figs  in  the  arid  lands  of  southern  Arizona, 
with  fair  prospects  of  success.  This  will  truly 
"make  the  desert  blossom,"  and  mean  millions  of 
dqllars  to  the  nation. 

2.  Grapes.  This  is  also  a  fruit  known  to  the 
ancients,  found  by  Joshua  when  he  went  to  "  spy 
out"  the  promised  land.      The  grapevine  grows 


best  in  temperate  regions,  and  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  for  its  berry  fruit.  A 
small  seedless  grape,  raised  in  Greece  and 
its  adjacent  islands,  is  dried,  and  forms 
the  currants  of  commerce.  (Believed  to 
have  been  so  named  from  Corinth,  Greece.) 
This  one  article  constitutes  50  per  cent,  of 
the  exports  of  Greece.  Raisins  are  dried 
grapes,  produced  in  large  quantities  in  the 
Grecian  Archipelago,  Asia  Minor,  south- 
eastern Spain,  and  California.  From 
grapes  wine  is  manufactured.  The  prin- 
cipal wine-producing  regions  are  France, 
Germany,  Hungary,  Spain,  Portugal,  Ma- 
deira, and  California.  California  is  the 
wine  State  of  our  nation,  producing  up- 
ward of  fifty  million  gallons  yearly.  One 
of  the  finest  grape  regions  is  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  in  northern 
Ohio  and  western  New  York. 

3.  Bananas.  The  banana  is  a  tropical  plant 
largely  cultivated  in  all  warm  climes.  It  grows  to 
be  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  high,  but  each  ^ear 
dies  to  the  root.  Its  fruit  is  very  nutritious,  and 
is  a  main  source  of  food  in  tropical  regions.  A 
fiber  from  the  banana-skin  makes  a  beautiful 
cloth. 

4.  Apples.  The  apple  is  believed  to  be  a  native 
of  Asia,  having  been  brought  to  Europe  by  the 
Romans.  The  crab-apple  is  indigenous  to  Great 
Britain.  The  apple  was  the  first  American  fruit 
exported.  Aside  from  apples,  fresh  and  dried,  and 
vinegar,  one  of  the  chief  apple  products,  no  other 
fruit  item  is  recorded  among  our  nation's  exports 
prior  to  1865.  In  1821  our  exports  included  68,- 
000  bushels  of  apples,  while  now  the  yearly  exports 
of  this  fruit  average :  apples,  one  million  barrels ; 
dried  apples,  thirty  million  pounds;  cider,  625,- 
000  gallons;  and  vinegar,  100,000  gallons.  The 
nation's  annual  apple  crop  more  than  fills  sixty 
million  barrels.  Since  the  invention  of  the  fruit 
evaporator  (1870-75),  the  export  trade  in  dried 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


173 


picking  Oranges,  Riverside,  California,  U.  S.  A. 

apples  has  risen  from  $250,000  to  one  and  one- 
fourth  millions  of  dollars,  and  is  still  increasing. 
Judge  Wellhouse,  of  Kansas,  has  the  largest  apple 
orchards  in  the  world.  His  orchards  cover  1630 
acres,  and  number  upward  of  100,000  well-selected 
trees.  The  apple  does  not  thrive  in  a  warm  cli- 
mate. Limestone  soils  with  good  drainage,  in  tem- 
perate regions,  seem  best  adapted  for  this  fruit. 
Cold  storage  and  quick  transportation  service  have 
greatly  stimulated  the  shipping  of  all  fruits,  and 
one-third  of  the  fruit  exports  of  our  nation  are 
apples,  either  dried  or  fresh.  The  United  States 
and  Canada  are  the  greatest  apple-raising  regions, 
and  Great  Britain,  France  and  Germany  are  their 
best  customers. 

5.  Oranges.  This  fruit  has  been  cultivated  in 
India  for  many  centuries.  It  was  brought  to  Eu- 
rope by  the  Moors.  In  the  New  World,  Florida, 
Louisiana,  Mexico  and  California  furnish  the 
orange  of  commerce.  The  trees  are  prolific  bloom- 
ers, and  the  blossom  is  most  beautiful  and  very 
fragrant.    Each  year  1600  tons  of  orange  blossoms 


are  used  for  perfumery  purposes.  A  sin- 
gle orange  tree  has  been  known  to  yield 
20,000  oranges,  and  a  single  acre  of  trees 
will  produce  ten  tons  of  fruit.  The  trees 
will  bear  fruit  for  more  than  100  years. 
The  seedless  or  navel  orange  was  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  from  Bahia, 
Brazil,  in  1870,  by  Mr.  William  Saunders, 
superintendent  of  the  gardens  and  grounds 
of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
He  had  twelve  trees  of  this  unique  va- 
riety of  oranges  shipped  him  from  the 
Bahia  district.  From  these  trees  Mr. 
Saunders  obtained  buds,  which  were 
grafted  upon  small  orange  plants  and 
shipped  to  Florida  and  California.  The 
new  orange  did  not  thrive  in  Florida, 
and,  while  it  thrived  in  California,  it 
awakened  little  interest  until  two  trees 
came  into  bearing  in  1879,  at  River- 
side, California.  The  first  crop  from  these  two 
trees  consisted  of  sixteen  oranges.  JSTow,  River- 
side annually  sends  out  to  the  world  1,600,000 
boxes  of  navel  oranges.  While  Californa  and  the 
Gulf  States  have  prolific  orange  groves,  that  dur- 
ing the  fruit  season  send  solid  trains  of  orange  cars 
across  the  continent  to  our  great  fruit-distributing 
centers,  yet  at  present  we  are  importing  two  million 
boxes  to  supply  the  home  demand.  Some  come 
from  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  sea — chiefly 
from  Sicily  and  Malta,  Portugal,  Azores,  Mexico, 
and  West  Indies.  Oranges  are  packed  for  ship- 
ment in  oblong  boxes,  each  orange  being  wrapped 
in  tissue-paper  and  in  a  division  compartment  to 
prevent  bruising  or  rubbing.  The  orange  belongs 
to  the  botanical  family  of  citrus  fruits. 

8.  The  Lemon  is  a  member  of  this  same  ever- 
green group  of  citrus  fruits.  The  lemon  tree  is 
not  as  symmetrical  as  the  orange  tree,  is  not  as 
hardy,  and  averages  twelve  feet  in  height.  The 
lemon  was  used  by  the  ancient  Roman  to  keep 
moths  from  his  garments,  and  in  Pliny's  time  the 


174 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


fruit  was  deemed  an  excellent  poison.  While  the 
tree  is  more  tender  than  the  orange  tree,  its  fruit 
will  keep  better.  A  lemon  tree  yields  from  3000 
to  8000  lemons  in  one  season.  The  extract  and  oil 
of  lemon  are  important  articles  of  commerce,  as 
well  as  the  fruit  from  which  they  are  obtained. 
California  and  Florida  are  the  principal  sources  of 
our  lemons,  although  they  cannot  supply  the  home 
demand.  From  two  to  three  million  boxes  of  lem- 
ons are  yearly  imported.  These  are  obtained  from 
the  Mediterranean  lands.  West  Indies,  Mexico, 
East  Indies,  and  Carribean  states  of  South  Amer- 
ica. 

9.  The  Lime  is  a  citrus  fruit,  closely  related  to 
the  lemon.  The  juice  is  much  used  for  "  sum- 
mer drinks"  and  for  medicinal  purposes.  Lime- 
juice  prevents  scurvy,  and  therefore  has  a  place  in 
the  medicine-chest  of  every  navy  in  the  world. 
Confectioners  and  cooks  make  important  uses  of 
lime-juice. 

10.  The  Orchard  Fruits,  pears,  peaches,  cher- 
ries, apricots,  nectarines,  are  important  articles  of 
domestic  trade,  but  do  not  enter  largely  into  the 
international  or  world  commerce,  feeing  quite  per- 
ishable fruits. 

11.  The  Berry  or  Small  Fruits  are  strawberry, 
raspberry,  blackberry,  huckleberry,  cranberry, 
gooseberry,  and  dewberry.  The  strawberry  is  the 
most  important  small  fruit  grown.  It  grows  wild 
in  many  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Europe, 
but  has  been  greatly  improved  by  cultivation.  It 
is  considered  one  of  the  most  desirable  of  fruits. 
Something  like  a  million  cases  a  year  are  taken  to 
our  large  cities  on  "  strawberry  trains."  In  some 
p*irts  of  Mexico  strawberries  can  be  so  grown  as 
to  ripen  every  month  in  the  year.  In  the  United 
States  the  strawberry  harvest  begins  in  early  spring 
at  the  Gulf,  and  goes  slowly  northward,  the  Canada 
strawberries  maturing  in  July. 

The  berry  business  has  created  the  demand  for 
berry-boxes  and  baskets.  Basket  factories  have 
been  built  near  the  fruit  regions  of  Michigan,  Cali- 


fornia, Illinois,  Maryland,  New  York,  New  Jer- 
sey, and  Georgia.  The  fruit  business  has  opened 
up  large  canning  and  preserving  factories,  and 
these  in  turn  have  increased  the  capacity  of  tin- 
plate  mills  and  glass  factories  to  supply  the  needed 
tin  and  glass  for  canneries. 

One  of  the  most  important  garden  fruits  canned 
is  the  tomato.  This  is  a  garden  vegetable  common 
to  all  North-American  gardens.  Linna?us  gave  the 
tomato  a  Persian  name  (Lycopersicum  esculen- 
tum),  but  eminent  English  botanists  credit  this 
plant  to  South  America.  Less  than  100  years  ago 
the  tomato  was  believed  to  be  poisonous.  While 
the  skin  is  indigestible,  we  use  the  luscious  pulp 
raw,  cooked,  or  canned,  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

Corn,  beans,  peaches,  apples,  cherries,  pears, 
plums,  the  berries,  and  tomatoes,  are  canned  and 
sent  far  and  near.  American  canned  goods  are  in 
demand  in  international  trade  from  Russia  to 
Australia. 

12.  The  Pineapple  is  a  most  remarkable  fruit, 
indigenous  to  the  tropics.  A  cone-shaped  growth 
weighing  from  two  to  six  pounds  is  formed  close 
to  the  ground.  This  is  topped  with  flowery  plumes, 
and  is  surrounded  with  cactus-like  leaves.  This 
cone  contains  a  woody  pulp  in  which  is  secreted  a 
most  palatable  juice.  This  fruit  is  now  quite  suc- 
cessfully grown  in  Florida  and  California,  and  is 
being  introduced  into  all  the  Gulf  States.  Our 
chief  supply  of  pineapples  has  formerly  come  from 
Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  West  Indies. 

13.  The  Olive.  The  olive  tree  is  a  native  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  is  noted  for  its  fruit,  its  oil,  and 
its  long  life.  It  is  an  evergreen  that  flourishes 
best  in  subtropical  climes.  The  fruit,  pickled 
before  it  ripens,  is  a  very  important  article  of 
commerce,  from  Italy,  France,  Spain,  and  Turkey. 
From  the  ripe  fruit  is  obtained  the  olive-oil  of 
commerce.  In  Spain  and  Italy  this  oil  is  used  by 
many  peasants  as  a  substitute  for  butter.  The 
olive  was  brought  to  America  by  the  Spaniards, 
about  200  years  ago.     It  is  cultivated  in  many 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


175 


parts  of  Mexico,  southern  California,  es- 
pecially in  the  region  of  San  Diego,  and 
in  the  South  Atlantic  States  as  far  north 
as  IsTorth  Carolina.  Olive-wood  is  fine 
grained,  and  is  much  used  for  cabinet 
work.  The  tree  rarely  exceeds  twenty  feet 
in  height,  and  is  the  earliest  tree  of  an- 
tiquity. Its  branch  from  remote  times  has 
been  the  emblem  of  peace  and  plenty. 

Miscellaneous  Garden  Pkoducts. 

Aside  from  the  vegetables  and  fruits 
already  mentioned,  melons,  pumpkins, 
squashes,  cucumbers,  cabbages,  cauli- 
flower, spinach,  chard,  celery  and  aspara- 
gus deserve  a  place  on  our  commercial  list. 

The  greatest  melon  center  east  of  the 
Mississippi  is  Atlanta,  Georgia,  and  the 
greatest  one  west  of  the  Mississippi  is 
Rocky  Ford,  Colorado.  Trains  of  melons  are  dis- 
tributed by  the  railroads  many  hundreds  of  miles 
from  these  centers  each  season.  The  melon  is  a 
native  of  Asia.  Columbus  is  believed  to  have 
brought  it  to  America.  The  finest  melons  in  Eu- 
rope are  raised  along  the  Volga  river. 

The  pumpkin  is  raised  in  nearly  all  parts  of  our 
nation,  and  its  pies  are  always  appetizing. 

Squashes  are  related  to  pumpkins  on  the  one 
hand  and  to  gourds  on  the  other.  The  crookneck, 
scallop  and  Hubbard  all  furnish  table  delicacies. 

The  cucumber  belongs  to  the  melon  tribe,  and 
both  melons  and  cucumbers  are  members  of  the 
gourd  family,  and  are  the  leading  edible  fruits  in 
this  large  group  of  plants.  The  cucumber  is 
largely  used  for  pickles,  and  its  commercial  im- 
portance arises  from  this  fact.  The  largest  pickle 
factories  in  our  nation  are  at  Pittsburg,  Pennsyl- 
vania. Here,  five  billion  cucumbers  are  bottled 
yearly.  These  factories  establish  salting-houses  in 
the  cucumber  districts  of  western  Pennsylvania. 
Gardeners  bring  their  cucumbers  to  these  salting- 
houses.    Here  they  are  placed  in  large  cylindrical 


Where  the  Luscious  Pineapple  Grows,  Florida,  U.  S.  A. 

vats  and  covered  with  brine.  When  taken  to  the 
factory  these  salted  pickles  are  cleaned  in  warm 
running  water,  which  preserves  their  green  color. 
They  are  placed  in  the  sorting-machine  and  sep- 
arated into  different  sized  groups  of  pickles.  A 
row  of  girls  now  receive  the  pickles,  and,  with  a 
pair  of  slim  wooden  tongs,  arrange  them  in  good 
form  in  bottles.  Vinegar  and  spices  are  then 
added.  The  bottles  are  corked,  labeled,  covered 
with  tin-foil,  and  cased  for  the  market.  One 
pickling  manufactory  at  Pittsburg  covers  ten 
city  blocks,  and,  working  up  cucumbers,  onions, 
Cauliflower,  beans,  beets,  tomatoes  and  other  vege- 
tables, manufactures  fifty-seven  different  food 
products.  This  factory  was  established  in  1869, 
and  some  one  or  more  of  its  food  products  can  be 
found  at  every  cross-roads  grocery  in  the  nation. 

Of  the  rest  of  these  vegetables,  celery  is  the 
most  important.  It  is  much  used  in  many  patent 
medicines  and  drugs,  and  its  succulent  stalks  grace 
the  dinner-table  all  the  year  round.  Kalamazoo 
bottoms  in  Michigan  have  just  the  right  climate 
and  the  proper  soil  and  moisture  for  this  plant. 


176 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


For  this  reason,  tJbe  city  of  Kalamazoo  is  the  cel- 
ery center  of  our  nation,  and  three  crops  per  year 
are  sometimes  raised  there.  While  the  leaves  may 
be  bleached  by  being  covered  for  a  fortnight,  yet 
mnch  of  the  celery  is  bleached  by  sulphur  fumi- 
gation. The  yearly  output  of  celery  in  the  Kala- 
mazoo district  averages  from  900  to  1000  million 

bunches. 

The    Spice   Family. 

Spices  are  those  vegetable  substances  that  are 

much  used  for  flavoring  foods. 

1.  Ginger.  Ginger  is  cultivated  in  the  East 
Indies,  the  West  Indies,  and  in  China.  It  is  ob- 
tained from  the  roots  of  the  plant.  The  root-stalk 
of  young  plants  is  frequently  preserved  in  syrup. 

2.  Pepper.  The  berries  of  the  pepper  plant 
form  an  important  article  of  spice  commerce.  The 
plant  is  a  climbing  shrub  much  cultivated  in  trop- 
ical countries,  especially  in  the  East  Indies.  The 
berries  grow  in  clusters,  and  are  of  a  bright  red 
color.  The  berry  when  ripe  is  soaked  in  water 
until  the  red  skin  falls  off.  This  gives  the  white 
pepper  of  commerce.  The  black  pepper  comes 
from  the  pepper-berries  that  are  picked  before 
they  ripen,  and  turn  black.  In  mediaeval  times 
this  was  the  most  costly  of  the  spices.  Eighty  per 
cent,  of  our  nation's  pepper  that  is  imported 
comes  from  the  British  East  Indies. 

3.  Cinnamon.  Cinnamon  is  the  bark  of  an 
evergreen  tree  that  is  native  to  Ceylon.  The  trees 
are  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  high,  are  long 
lived,  and  the  bark  from  young  shoots  as  well  as 
trees  100  years  old  is  utilized  in  the  cinnamon 
trade.  The  trees  are  stripped  twice  a  year.  The 
bark  is  scraped  until  quite  thin,  and  laid  out  in 
the  tropical  sun  to  dry.  When  perfectly  dry  these 
strips  are  tied  into  bundles  and  sent  to  market. 
The  world's  cinnamon  port  is  Colombo.  Cinna- 
mon trees  are  also  grown  in  China  and  the  north- 
eastern coast  of  South  America. 

4.  Cloves.  The  cloves  of  commerce  are  the 
fruit-buds  of  a  tropical  tree.    These  buds  are  picked 


just  before  they  are  ready  to  open,  and  are  dried 
in  the  sun.  The  tree  grows  to  the  height  of  thirty 
to  forty  feet,  lives  to  be  150  to  200  years  old,  and 
is  a  native  of  the  Molucca  Islands.  The  principal 
clove  supply  of  the  world  to-day  comes  from  the 
islands  of  Zanzibar  and  Pemba.  A  valuable  oil 
is  also  obtained  from  cloves. 

5.  Nutmeg.  The  nutmeg  tree  looks  much  like  a 
pear  tree ;  is  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  height, 
and  is  found  in  the  tropical  regions  of  Asia,  Amer- 
ica, and  the  island  of  Madagascar.  The  fruit 
when  ripe  is  blood-red.  It  is  inclosed  in  a  husk 
that  breaks  open  when  the  fruit  matures.  The 
fruit  is  obtained  by  means  of  a  barb  fastened  to  a 
long  stick.  The  fibrous  pulp  of  the  fruit  is  the 
mace  of  commerce.  The  kernel  or  seed  of  the  fruit 
contains  the  nutmeg.  The  pulp  is  dried  until  it 
is  of  a  golden-brown  color,  and  is  preserved  by 
being  sprinkled  with  sea-water.  The  seeds  are 
dried  over  a  slow  fire  not  exceeding  140°  tem- 
perature. This  is  kept  up  until  the  nut  within  the 
kernel  shell  rattles  freely.  Often  this  takes  two 
months'  time.  Now  the  shell  is  cracked  and  the 
nut  is  obtained.     This  is  the  nutmeg  of  commerce. 

6.  Allspice.  The  allspice  of  commerce  is  the 
berry  of  the  bayberry  or  pimento  tree.  This  tree 
is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies  and  South  America. 
In  Jamaica  it  grows  wild  in  great  abundance,  and 
is  a  highly  ornamental  tree.  It  averages  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  in  height.  One  tree  has 
been  known  to  yield  150  pounds  of  fruit.  The 
berries  are  picked  just  before  they  ripen,  and  are 
very  carefully  dried.  They  then  retain  their 
aromatic  flavor,  which  is  supposed  to  combine  the 
flavor  of  cinnamon,  cloves,  and  nutmeg, —  hence 
the  name,  allspice.  If  allowed  to  ripen,  the  berry 
loses  this  flavor. 

7.  Cayenne  Pepper.  Cayenne  pepper  is  the 
pod  of  a  South-American  plant,  first  brought  from 
Cayenne,  Guiana.  This  plant  is  called  capsicum ; 
has  four  species,  only  two  of  which  are  valuable  to 
commerce.     Capsicum  is  a  native  of  tropical  re- 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


177 


gioiis,  but  is  grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  commercial  world.  It  grows  from  two 
to  three  feet  high;  has  an  ovate  or  a  coni- 
cal pod,  which  is  often  picked  green  and 
used  for  pickling.  When  ripe  the  pod  is  a 
bright  scarlet  or  orange  color.  The  ripe 
pod  is  picked,  dried,  and  ground  to  powder. 
This  is  the  cayenne  pepper  of  commerce, 
quite  largely  used  as  a  condiment  to  aid  di- 
gestion. A  volatile  liquid  is  extracted  from 
the  Guiana  pepper  that  is  much  used  in 
place  of  the  powder  in  medicine. 

8.  Mustard.  Mustard  is  an  annual  plant, 
well  known  and  much  used  in  ancient  times. 
The  seed  is  an  important  article  of  spice 
commerce.  There  are  three  important  va- 
rieties: black  mustard,  found  principally 
in  Europe;  white  mustard,  found  in  Eu- 
rope, Asia,  and  the  United  States;  and 
a  wild  mustard,   found   in  England   and  Korth 

America. 

Beverage   Family. 

1.  Coffee.  The  coffee  tree  is  an  evergreen  tree, 
in  its  wild  state  reaching  a  height  of  twenty  to 
thirty  feet.  The  cultivated' tree  is  prevented  from 
attaining  a  height  of  more  than  twelve  feet.  The 
coffee  tree  is  a  native  of  Abyssinia,  and  is  believed 
to  have  taken  its  name  from  Kaffa,  a  province  in 
Abyssinia.  Coffee  has  been  an  article  of  com- 
merce for  a  thousand  years.  The  Coffea  ardhica, 
as  it  is  known  to  science,  is  a  shrub  from  four  to 
eight  feet  high.  This  shrub  furnishes  the  Arabian 
coffee.  Coffee  leaves  are  dark  green  in  color,  and 
the  blossoms  are  pure  white,  and  very  fragrant. 
The  fruit  grows  in  clusters,  from  three  to  twelve 
berries  in  each.  The  fruit  when  ripe  is  very  much 
like  the  cranberry  in  color,  shape,  and  size.  This 
fruit  has  a  yellowish  pulp,  that  is  pleasant  to  the 
taste.  It  contains  two  irregular  half-sphere-shaped 
seeds,  although  sometimes  there  is  only  one  seed, 
almost  round.  Very  many  seeds  in  the  Arabian  or 
Mocha  coffee  are  single  or  "  male "  seeds.     The 


Coffee  Trees  'n  Blossom,  Blue  Mountains,  Jamaica,  W.  I. 

berry  pulp  is  removed  by  passing  through  wooden 
rollers,  and  the  seeds  or  beans  are  dried,  roasted, 
polished  and  sacked  as  the  coffee  of  commerce. 

The  coffee  plant  grows  anywhere  beyond  the 
reach  of  frost,  and  in  climates  not  affected  by  ex- 
cessive drouth  or  moisture.  It  thrives  best  on 
steep  mountain-sides  about  1000  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  upon  well-drained  plains.  As  the  plants 
bear  fruit  many  months,  several  crops  are  gathered 
each  year.  A  tree  bears  fruit  after  three  years  old, 
and  a  plantation  lasts  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
years.  A  yield  from  one  to  six  pounds  of  coffee 
seeds  or  beans  is  obtained  from  each  tree  at  each 
period  of  fruiting.  The  coffee  trees  of  Brazil 
yield  from  three  to  six  pounds  per  tree.  It  is 
said  that  one  farmer  can  care  for  an  orchard  of 
2000  to  10,000  trees.  At  the  time  of  bearing  the 
trees  have  cost  the  farmer  from  thirty  to  sixty 
cents  apiece. 

In  Arabia  the  leaves  of  the  coffee  plant  are 
dried,  rolled,  and  used  as  tea  leaves.  This  coffee 
made  from  the  leaves  has  the  flavor  of  the  beans. 
Brazil   now  furnishes   commerce   over   sixty   per 


178 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


cent,  of  its  coffee.     Rio  Janeiro  is  the  greatest 
coffee  mart  in  the  world. 

2.  Tea.  The  tea  plant  is  an  evergreen  shrub, 
cultivated  for  its  leaves.  In  its  native  or  wild 
state  it  grows  from  fifteen  to  thirty  feet  high,  but 
under  cultivation  its  height  is  kept  below  ten  feet. 
This  plant  is  believed  to  have  been  first  cultivated 
in  China.  It  was  first  brought  to  Europe  by  the 
Portuguese,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  tea 
farms  of  China  are  usually  small,  and  are  in 
l^'orth  China.  The  leaves  can  only  be  gathered  at 
certain  seasons,  and  the  plants  require  much  care. 
When,  in  the  spring,  the  new  leaves  burst  from  the 
bud,  they  are  gathered  while  young  and  tender. 
This  tea  loses  much  of  its  flavor  when  transported 
long  distances,  and  is  therefore  principally  used 
for  domestic  trade  and  the  Russian  caravan  trade. 
It  brings  a  very  high  price  in  Russia.  Just  after 
the  summer  rains,  a  second  picking  gives  the  prin- 
cipal tea  of  commerce.  A  third  picking  in  mid- 
surrwner  furnishes  a  poorer  tea,  used  by  the  lower 
classes. 

Tea  leaves  are  dried  by  the  air  and  sun,  and 
are  roasted  in  shallow  pans  over  a  slow  fire.  It  is 
now  hand-rolled,  assorted,  and  packed  in  chests 
lined  with  lead  sheets  to  keep  out  the  air.  This 
process  is  carried  on  not  only  in  China,  but  in 
Japan,  East  Indies,  Brazil,  and  all  other  tea- 
producing  countries  the  method  of  preparing  tea 
for  trade  is  practically  the  same.  The  plants  are 
raised  from  the  seed,  and  the  tea  farm  is  restocked 
with  new  plants  when  the  old  shrubs  are  ten  to 
twelve  years  old. 

Tea  farms  are  being  successfully  developed  in 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia  on  our  Atlantic  coast, 
and  in  southern  California  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
Tea  can  be  profitably  raised  in  Mexico,  Central 
America,  and  the  northern  half  of  South  America. 
The  price  of  labor  in  the  tea-growing  region  is  an 
important  factor  in  its  culture,  as  the  plant  re- 
quires much  care  and  attention. 

3.  Pulque.     This  is  the  national  beverage  of 


Mexico.  It  is  made  from  the  "honey-water"  or 
juice  of  the  maguey  plant.  This  plant  is  a  species 
of  the  agave  or  century-plant  group.  The  plant 
requires  from  seven  to  eight  years  to  mature  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America,  where  it  is  native. 
It  takes  from  fifty  to  sixty  years  for  the  plant  to 
mature  and  blossom  in  greenhouses  in  this  coun- 
try, and  as  it  dies  after  it  has  blossomed  and  re- 
quires so  many  years  to  mature  out  of  its  native 
climate,  we  call  the  agave  the  century  plant.  When 
the  plant  matures  it  sends  up  a  flower-stalk  from 
twenty  to  thirty  feet  high.  This  ends  in  clusters 
of  blossoms,  often  numbering  between  3000  and 
4000  flowers.  In  Mexico,  when  the  maguey  plant 
flower-stalk  begins  to  appear  the  Mexican  cuts  the 
center  of  the  stem  out.  Often  this  leaves  a  hollow 
eighteen  inches  across  and  fully  as  deep.  The 
honey-water  that  the  plant  has  stored  for  the  flow- 
ers, flows  into  this  hollow.  It  is  collected,  fer- 
mented, and  becomes  pulque,  the  great  Mexican 
drink.  The  honey-water  is  quite  sweet,  but  the 
pulque  is  sour,  has  the  consistency  and  appearance 
of  thin  buttermilk,  and  a  disagreeable  odor.  Mexi- 
cans regard  it  as  agreeable  and  delightfully  re- 
freshing. A  maguey  plant  at  the  flowering  stage 
yields  from  ten  to  twelve  pints  daily  for  a  period 
of  twelve  to  sixteen  weeks.  Mexicans  are  so  fond 
of  this  drink  that  their  capital  city  alone  uses  thou- 
sands of  barrels  of  pulque  daily.  From  the  plant's 
leaves  is  obtained  a  fiber  used  to  manufacture 
cloth,  twine,  rope,  and  paper.  The  dried  leaves 
are  often  used  in  place  of  shingles  on  houses. 
Along  the  edges  of  the  leaves  are  thorn-like  needles. 
These  are  connected  with  fine  fibers,  which,  by 
twisting  together,  make  a  strong  thread.  Some  peo- 
ple therefore  call  this  the  thread-and-needle  plant. 
The  roots  are  cooked  and  used  as  food,  while  the 
whole  plant  makes  a  good  fuel.  This  is  therefore 
a  very  useful  plant. 

4.  Chocolate.  Chocolate  is  the  Mexican  name 
for  the  cacao  tree.  This  tree  resembles  the  cherry 
tree  in  form,  and  grows  from  twelve  to  twenty-five 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


179 


feet  high.  The  fruit  is  a  sort  of  cucumber,  of  a 
yellowish  red  color,  and  the  pulp  is  used  for  food. 
Within  the  pulp  are  from  twenty  to  thirty  seeds,  or 
beans.  These  beans  contain  two  lobes  called 
''nibs."  From  these,  cocoa  and  chocolate  are  ob- 
tained. The  tree  is  an  evergreen,  and  carries  both 
flower  and  fruit  in  all  stages  at  the  same  time.  The 
fruit  ripens  in  July  and  December.  One  tree  sel- 
dom yields  more  than  a  pound  and  a  half  of  beans. 
These  beans  are  roasted  with  great  care.  The 
greatest  chocolate  mills  are  in  Holland.  In  these 
mills  a  cracker  and  fanner  breaks  oif  the  shell  and 
lets  the  nibs  fall  out.  These  nibs-  are  then  ground 
and  made  into  a  thick  chocolate  paste.  This  is  now 
molded  into  cakes,  wrapped  in  tin-foil,  and  sent  to 
market.  The  cacao  bean  or  nut  is  more  than  50  per 
cent  fat.  This,  w^hen  extracted,  constitutes  cocoa 
butter,  much  used  by  confectioners  and  in  the  finest 
grades  of  toilet  soaps.  The  residue  remaining  after 
the  butter  or  oil  is  pressed  out  of  the  chocolate  paste 
constitutes  the  cocoa  or  cocoa-shells  of  commerce. 
The  cacao  tree  grows  best  in  Venezuela,  although 
the  tree  is  now  found  in  nearly  all  tropical  coun- 
tries. It  is  believed  to  be  a  native  of  tropical 
America.  Our  nation  consumes  fifty  million 
pounds  of  chocolate  and  ten  million  pounds  of  cocoa 
yearly. 

5.  Yerba  Mate.  This  is  a  species  of  holly  that 
grows  in  the  river  valleys  of  Paraguay  and  in  the 
valleys  and  table-lands  of  southwestern  Brazil. 
The  leaves  are  gathered  and  carefully  dried  after 
the  manner  of  tea-leaves  in  other  countries.  The 
aborigines  were  using  these  leaves  when  the  Euro- 
peans came,  and  called  the  drink  mate.  Mate  is 
used  as  a  beverage  quite  generally  over  South 
America.  It  is  estimated  that  no  portion  of  the 
world  consumes  so  large  an  amoimt  of  tea  in  pro- 
portion to  its  inhabitants  as  is  used  of  the  mate  by 
the  South-American  people. 

The   Fiber  Family. 

This  is  a  very  large  group,  numbering  1018 
different  plants,  that  furnish  some  species  of  fiber 


used  in  the  manufacturing  world.  Those  fiber 
plants  that  furnish  an  important  element  in  our 
nation's  commerce  are  named  below. 

1.  Flax.  Flax  rivals  the  staple  food  plants  in 
its  importance  to  mankind.  The  Swiss  lake-dwell- 
ers, who  lived  when  the  long-extinct  mammoth  was 
earth's  elephant,  wore  fabrics  mfede  of  flax.  Egypt 
was  noted  for  the  fineness  of  her  linen  3000  years 
ago.  Here  flax  was  first  known.  This  useful  plant 
was  brought  to  our  land  in  1626.  The  fiber  was 
made  into  sail-cloth  in  Massachusetts  in  1790. 
From  its  thread  Ireland  manufactures  a  fine  va- 
riety of  linen  called  damask.  Belgium  and  Hol- 
land from  linen  thread  make  the  finest  of  laces  and 
fancy  edgings.  The  first  mill  for  spinning  linen 
yam  in  Great  Britain  was  built  in  1787.  In  1834 
a  large  mill  was  built  at  Fall  Kiver,  Massachusetts. 
The  countries  leading  in  the  manufacture  of  linen 
are  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  and  France.  A  light 
linen  fabric  called  lawn  was  first  made  in  France, 
but  is  now  made  in  many  other  countries.  From 
flax-seed  is  obtained  linseed  oil,  much  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  paints  and  varnishes.  The  meal 
of  the  seed  left  after  extracting  the  oil  is  a  commer- 
cial stock  food  known  as  oilcake. 

2.  Cotton.  There  are  many  different  species  of 
this  plant  native  to  the  tropical  regions  of  Africa, 
Asia,  and  America.  Cotton  was  the  original  fiber 
of  India.  The  Phoenicians  and  Babylonians  w^ere 
noted  for  their  skill  in  making  textile  fabrics  of 
cotton  as  well  as  linen,  while  cotton  fabrics  were 
used  in  both  Greece  and  Rome.  Columbus  found 
cotton  growing  in  America,  and  in  Peru  mummies 
of  a  prehistoric  age  have  been  found  wrapped  in 
cotton.  The  finer  muslins  and  laces  are  made 
from  the  Sea-Island  cotton  grown  on  the  islands 
and  seacoast  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
Florida,  and  the  Egyptian  cotton.  Sea-Island 
cotton  was  first  brought  to  the  United  States  in 
1786. 

From  the  common  Brazilian  and  American  cot- 
ton, cambrics,  calico  and  shirting  are  made.     Fus- 


180 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Picking  Cotton,  Georgia,  U.  S.  A. 

tian  is  made  from  the  poorer  qualities  of  Surat 
and  -American  cotton. 

The  most  perfect  system  of  cotton  cultivation  is 
found  in  our  own  nation,  which,  from  1890  to 
1900,  furnished  62|  per  cent,  of  the  world's  cotten. 
It  now  furnishes  over  66  per  cent.,  or  two-thirds 
of  the  cotton  of  the  world.  The  most  of  the  world's 
cotton  is  raised  between  the  35th  and  40th  parallels 
north  latitude.  The  principal  cotton-producers 
outside  of  the  United  States  are  India,  China,  and 
Egypt.  These  three  countries  furnish  30  per  cent, 
of  the  world's  cotton.  Greece,  Italy,  Turkey  in 
Asia,  Persia,  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies  furnish 
the  remaining  amount  of  cotton  that  makes  up  a 
world's  yearly  output  of  fifteen  million  bales  of 
500  pounds  each. 

Up  to  1793,  the  "churks"  had  been  used  for 


centuries  in  Oriental  countries  as 
a  hand-mill  for  separating  the 
seeds  from  cotton  fiber.  In  this 
country  slave  labor  was  employed 
on  the  plantation,  and  all  cotton 
■was  "  seeded  "  by  hand.  From  one 
to  five  pounds  constituted  a  day's 
work  for  a  man.  In  1793  a  Xew 
England  school  teacher,  visiting 
in  the  South  contrived  a  machine 
that  worked  admirably  from  the 
start.  This  machine  was  a  cotton- 
gin  that  could  clean  a  thousand 
pounds  of  cotton  in  a  day.  It  was 
invented  by  Eli  Whitney,  in  1793. 
This  machine  reduced  the  labor 
and  expense  of  "  seeding  "  cotton, 
increased  the  acreage  of  cotton, 
and  caused  Robert  Fulton  to  say, 
"  Arkwright,  Watt  and  Whitney 
have  done  more  for  mankind  than 
any  of  their  contemporaries."  Sir 
Richard  Arkwright  invented  the 
cotton-spinning  frame  in  1768, 
that  enables  one  man  to  do  the  work  of  thirty. 
The  spinning-frame  and  cotton-gin  greatly  in- 
creased the  importance  of  cotton  as  a  commercial 
fiber.  The  first  cotton-mill  in  the  United  States 
was  built  at  Pawtvicket,  Rhode  Island,  in  De- 
cember, 1790,  by  Samuel  Slater.  The  water-power 
of  New  England  was  utilized  in  making  cotton 
goods,  and  Lowell,  Manchester,  Lawrence  and  Fall 
River  became  centers  where  millions  of  yards  of 
cotton  cloth  were  manufactured. 

In  1793  Samuel  Slater  set  seventy-two  spindles 
to  spinning  cotton.  In  1900  we  had  18,500,000 
spindles  making  cotton  yarn  in  this  country.  The 
past  decade  has  seen  a  large  number  of  cotton  mills 
established  in  the  South.  Nearness  to  the  cotton- 
fields,  abundance  of  fuel  and  cheapness  of  labor 
are  factors  that  have  led  to  the  establishment  of 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


181 


Native  making  Rope  from  the  Fiber  of  the  Maguey  Plant,  Monterey, 

Mexico. 


these  mills.  In  1899  these  mills  turned  1,415,000 
bales  of  cotton  into  jam  and  cloth;  while  the 
Northern  mills  used  only  2,217,000  bales  of  cot- 
ton. South  Carolina  leads  the  Southern  States  in 
cotton  manufactures. 

In  1899  the  United  States  passed  Great  Britain 
in  the  amount  of  cotton  manufactured. 

In  1899  the  greatest  purchasers  of  American  cot- 
ton were  as  follows  (in  thousand  bales,  of  500 
pounds  each)  : 


1.  Great  Britain 3,610 

2.  Germany 1,728 

3.  France 804 

4.  Italy 400 

5.  Spain    248 

6.  Japan  182 

7.  Belgium   130 

8.  Canada 98 


9.  Russia 94 

10.  Austria   56 

11.  Netherlands 52 

12.  Denmark 39 

13.  Mexico 36 

14.  Sweden  and  Nor- 

way    24 

15.  Portugal 22 


The  great  cotton  ports  of  our  nation  rank  as 
follows : 

1.  Galveston  ships  29  per  cent,  of  export  cotton. 

2.  New  Orleans  ships  25  per  cent. 

3.  New  York  ships  8  per  cent. 

4.  Savannah  ships  8  per  cent. 

5.  Boston  ships  6  per  cent. 


The  greatest  cotton  mart  in  the  w^orld 
to-day  is  Galveston,   Texas. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  pulp  made 
from  stems  of  the  cotton  plant  can  be 
successfully  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
writing-paper.  The  oil  from  cotton-seed 
is  much  used  for  domestic  purposes  as 
"  cottolene."  The  residue  left  after  ex- 
tracting the  oil  is  a  valuable  stock  food, 
and  is  sold  as  oilcake.  Cotton-seed  flour 
has  been  found  not  only  palatable  but 
highly  nutritious,  and  bids  fair  to  enter 
commerce  as  a  food  element. 

3.  Hemp.  This  is  an  annual  plant, 
that  grows  in  both  hot  and  cold  coun- 
tries. It  is  valued  for  its  fiber,  which  is 
used  in  making  cloth,  twine  and  ropes; 
and  its  seed,  which  is  food  for  cage  birds, 
yields  an  oil  used  in  some  lands  for  illumi- 
nating purposes,  and  in  making  paints, 
varnishes  and  soaps.  From  the  seed  an 
intoxicating  beverage  is  obtained  called 
hashish.  This  is  much  used  in  Arabia  and  Ori- 
ental lands. 

The  principal  hemp-producing  States  of  our  na- 
tion are  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  Mis- 
souri. We  import  hemp  from  Russia,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Austria. 

From  a  species  of  plantain,  closely  resembling 
the  banana  tree,  and  growing  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-five  feet  high,  is  obtained  a  light-colored 
fiber.  As  most  of  it  is  shipped  out  from  Manila, 
P.  I.,  it  is  called  manila  hemp.  It  constitutes  the 
most  important  article  of  export  of  this  commercial 
port.  The  finer  fiber  is  woven  into  cloth  and  sandal 
straps ;  the  rest  is  made  into  coarse  cloth,  binding- 
twine,  and  ropes.  The  natives  of  the  Philippines 
have  crude  instruments  for  preparing  the  fiber  for 
market,  and  waste  nearly  half  of  it ;  yet  their  aver- 
age crop  approximates  800,000  bales  of  250  pounds 
each.  England  and  the  United  States  purchase 
nearly  the  entire  crop. 


182 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


The  fiber  obtained  from  dogbane,  a  small  per- 
ennial plant,  was  used  by  the  Indians,  and  is  com- 
mercially known  as  Canada  hemp. 

4.  Sisal,  a  fiber  similar  to  hemp,  is  much  used 
in  rope-making,  and  is  imported  from  Mexico  and 
Yucatan. 

5.  Vegetable  hair  from  Spanish  moss,  and  pal- 
metto fiber,  are  much  used  in  parts  of  our  nation. 
Fiber  manufacturers  import  ramie  from  China, 
jute  from  India,  raffia  from  Africa,  tampico  from 
Mexico,  cocoanut  fiber  from  East  Indies,  and  the 
fiber  of  the  maguey  plant  from  Mexico.  In  Ger- 
many a  cloth  is  made  of  the  needles  of  the  pine, 
in  Sweden  a  very  durable  cloth  is  made  from  the 
fiber  of  the  hop  plant,  and  in  the  islands  of  the 
south  tropical  oceans  the  bast  of  the  paper  mul- 
berry is  largely  used  in  paper-making.  In  elapan 
the  fiber  of  the  paper  mulberry  is  used  f'or  handker- 
chiefs, napkins,  and  many  other  domestic  fabrics. 

Tlie   Medicine   Family. 

1.  Cinchona  Tree.    (Previously  discussed.) 

2.  The  Poppy.  Opium  is  derived  from  the 
milky  juice  of  the  white  poppy.  This  plant  is  cul- 
tivated in  India,  Persia,  China,  Turkey,  and 
Egypt.  The  most  important  opium  district  in  the 
world  is  along  the  Ganges  river,  India.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  powerful  narcotics  and  is  an  important 
element  in  compounding  medicines. 

3.  Nightshade.  This  is  the  name  of  a  family  of 
plants,  widely  diffused  over  the  earth.  The  potato 
and  the  tomato,  which  belong  to  this  family  of 
plants,  have  been  discussed  as  food  products.  The 
next  most  important  member  of  the  nightshade 
group  of  plants  is  tobacco. 

Tobacco  is  a  native  of  America.  A  Frenchman, 
Jean  Nicot,  first  brought  the  seeds  to  Europe,  and 
the  plant  was  named  Nicotiana,  in  honor  of  him. 
The  plant  was  first  discovered  by  the  Spaniards,  in 
St.  Domingo,  near  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
There  are  many  species  of  the  plant  grown  for  use 


in  smoking, ,  chewing  and  snuffing,  as  well  as  for 
its  medicinal  use  as  a  narcotic. 

The  constant  use  of  the  leaf  of  this  plant  causes 
suffering,  and  tobacco  is  now  taxed  as  a  luxury  by 
nearly  all  commercial  nations.  Our  own  nation 
obtained  from  its  revenue  tax  on  tobacco,  in  1900, 
1Z^  million  dollars.  The  yearly  crop  in  the  United 
States  amounts  to  500  million  pounds  annually. 
Virginia  is  our  best  tobacco-growing  State,  although 
it  is  raised  in  all  the  Southern  States.  Special 
kinds  of  tobacco  are  grown  in  the  West  Indies, 
Persia,  Paraguay,  China,  and  the  United  States. 

Other  important  members  of  the  nightshade  fam- 
ily furnish  from  either  their  leaves,  seeds  or  roots, 
belladonna,  gelsemium,  nux  vomica,  strychnine, 
and  other  powerful  medicinal  substances.  Some  of 
the  most  virulent  herb  poisons  known  are  obtained 
from  the  nightshade  plants. 

4.  Aromatic,  (a)  Caraway,  (&)  Coriander, 
(c)  Anise-seed.  The  seeds  are  much  used  in  sea- 
soning foods,  and  have  also  medicinal  value. 

5.  The  Cactus  Group.  This  consists  of  1000 
species,  native  of  tropical  America.  The  more  im- 
portant members  are  the  night-blooming  cereus,  the 
cereus,  prickly  pear,  veiled  pear,  and  opuntia. 
The  opuntia  coccinellifera  secretes  the  cochineal 
insect,  so  valuable  in  dyeing  fabrics. 

6.  Myrtle  Group.  This  group  numbers  1800 
species,  varying  in  size  from  a  small  shrub  to  a 
good-sized  tree.  The  guavas,  pimento,  blue  gum, 
eucalyptus,  Brazil  nut,  as  well  as  the  common 
myrtle,  belong  to  this  group. 

7.  The  Soapberry  Group  consists  of  shrubs  and 
trees,  and  numbers  between  600  and  700  species. 
To  this  group  belong  the  maples,  box-elder,  buck- 
eye, bladder  nut,  and  horse  chestnut.  The  soap- 
berry tree  proper  is  a  native  of  tropical  America. 
The  rind  of  the  hard  globose  seeds  of  this  tree  is 
saponaceous,  and  is  much  used  for  soap.  The  hard 
maple  is  well  known  in  the  N^ortheastern  States  of 
our  nation.  Its  sugar  is  a  valuable  commercial 
product  of  Vermont,  New  York,  and  Ohio. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


183 


8.  The  Rue  Group  numbers  650  spe- 
cies of  shrubs  and  trees.  To  this  group 
belong  all  the  citrus  fruits, — oranges, 
lemons,  citrons,  limes,  etc., —  as  well 
as  the  prickly  ash  and  rue  trees.  The 
last-named  trees  are  cultivated  solely 
for  their  medicinal  qualities. 

9.  The  Geranium  Group  numbers 
750  species  native  to  tropical  regions, 
as  the  balsam,  of  India;  oxalis,  of 
Africa ;  and  tuberosum  tropoeolum,  of 
Peru. 

10.  The  Saxifrage  Group  consists 
of  herbs,  shrubs  and  trees  of  temperate 
and  cold  climates. 

11.  The  Mallow  Group  consists  of 
700  species  of  herbs,  shrubs  and  trees. 

The  silk  tree,  baobab,  mallows,,  and  hollyhock  are 
representatives  of  the  general  distribution  as  well 
as  botanical  characteristics. 

12.  The  Cruciferoe  or  Mustard  Group  numbers 
1200  species.  This  group  is  a  native  of  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  its  plants  are  much  cultivated  over 
the  north-temperate  regions.  Most  of  the  members 
of  this  group  furnish  edible  leaves  or  roots,  while 
others,  like  the  mustard,  have  also  valuable  medi- 
cinal qualities. 

13.  Smilax  Group.  This  group  numbers  many 
species.  The  sarsaparillas  of  the  drug  market 
come  largely  from  the  Mexican,  Central- American 
and  South-American  plants  of  this  group. 

14.  Juniper  berries,  peppermint  leaves,  ipeca, 
belladonna  root,  castor  beans,  digitalis,  ergo,  liver- 
wort, pawpaw  juice  and  marshmallow  roots  furnish 
well-known  and  valuable  members  of  a  miscella- 
neous list  of  a  crude-drug  trade  that  classifies  hun- 
dreds of  medicinal  plants  that  cannot  be  mentioned 
in  a  work  of  this  kind.  The  crude-drug  trade  of 
the  United  States  amounts  to  millions  of  dollars 
annually.  New  York,  Detroit,  San  Francisco  and 
St.  Louis  are  great  distributing  points  for  this 
trade.  One  of  the  largest  local  markets  for  barks 
and  herbs  is  Asheville,  North  Carolina. 


A  Geranium  Wall — California. 


Miscellaneous. 


There  are  420  species  of  plants  used  for  perfum- 
ery purposes.  Grasse,  France,  is  a  very  important 
center  of  the  perfume  industry.  This  one  center 
uses  annually  1,200,000  kilogrammes  of  roses, 
1,000,000  kilogrammes  of  jessamines,  2,000,000 
kilogrammes  of  violets  and  orange  blossoms,  besides 
the  tuberoses,  mignonette  and  cassias  used.  These 
are  gathered,  oils  extracted  from  the  flower  petals 
with  lard,  and  the  resulting  "  pomade  "  is  sent  to  all 
parts  of  Europe  and  America.  Here  grasses  and 
other  ingredients  are  added  -and  the  perfume  of 
commerce  appears. 

The  cut-flower  markets  of  Europe  and  America 
are  creating  an  important  demand  for  cut  flowers 
in  commercial  quantities.  New  York  city  is  the 
greatest  flower  market  in  the  world,  using  six  mill- 
ion dollars'  worth  of  flowers  annually ;  while  flower 
shows  are  approaching  the  importance  of  exposi- 
tions in  large  commercial  centers.  A  rose  farm 
near  Madison,  N.  J.,  and  an  orchid  farm  near 
New  Kochelle,  N.  Y,,  have  stock  worth  more  than 
a  million  dollars  each,  and  illustrate  a  new  and 
greatly  expanding  industry.  The  cut-flower  trade 
of  the  United  States,  for  1900,  amounted  to  more 
than  twelve  million  dollars. 


184 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


FURS  OF  COMMERCE. 


Furs  were  among  the  first  materials  used  for 
clothing.  The  barbarians  of  Europe  used  furs  to 
clothe  them,  and  when  tliey  became  civilized,  they 
used  fur-covered  couches  and  made  "  art  squares  " 
for  their  tents  of  furs.  When  the  quantity  of  furs 
at  home  was  lessened  the  fur-loving  Europeans 
sought  other  lands,  where  trading-posts  were  estab- 
lished and  a  lucrative  trade  opened  in  breadstuffs, 
building  material  and  fuel,  as  well  as  furs.  In 
this  way  many  parts  of  Russia  and  Siberia  in  the 
Eastern  continent,  and  Canada,  Alaska  and  our 
own  ^Northwest  have  been  opened  up  to  civilization. 
After  the  trading-post  came  forts,  to  protect  the 
traders,  while  hamlets  of  traffic  sprang  up  along 
the  routes  of  trade.  One  of  the  oldest  fur  compa- 
nies of  America  was  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  es- 
tablished by  Prince  Rupert  in  1670.  The  North- 
west Fur  Company  was  formed  in  1783,  but  this 
joined  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  in  1821.  The 
furs  collected  by  this  British  company  are  sold  at 
half-yearly  sales  in  London.  The  headquarters  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  where  furs  are  baled, 
is  at  Winnipeg. 

In  the  very  year  the  American  colonies  gained 
a  treaty  from  their  mother  country  granting  free- 
dom and  acknowledging  their  independence,  the 
founder  of  the  American  Fur  Company,  John 
Jacob  Astor,  came  to  our  shores.  Mr.  Astor 
founded  a  fur  trading-post  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Columbia  river  in  the  Northwest,  in  1811.  This 
soon  became  one  of  the  fur  centers  of  the  trade, 
and  was  named  Astoria.  This  trading-post  devel- 
oped into  an  important  commercial  center,  and 
greatly  strengthened  the  claim  of  the  United -States 
to  the  Oregon  country. 

In  the  year  1840  some  Canadian  fur-traders 
built  a  number  of  log  huts  on  the  present  site  of 
St.  Paul.  In  1849  St.  Paul  was  a  village  of  500 
people  and  the  capital  of  the  newly  formed  Terri- 


tory of  Minnesota.  To-day  the  greatest  fur  center 
of  our  nation  is  St.  Paul,  where  millions  of  costly 
pelts  are  collected  from  the  great  Northwest  and 
made  into  such  garments  as  the  fashionable  woman, 
the  Northern  farmer,  the  hunter,  the  cowboy,  the 
street-car  motorman  or  the  roadster  demand.  The 
season's  product  of  the  St.  Paul  fur-dressers  is  ap- 
proximately as  follows:  Raccoons,  115,000;  Aus- 
tralian wombats,  85,000 ;  Russian,  German  and 
American  calfskins,  120,000;  otter,  10,000; 
beaver,  7,000;  mink,  16,000;  opossum,  from  Aus- 
tralia 10,000,  from  America  5,000 ;  wolf,  4,000 ; 
muskrat,  45,000;  Chinese  dogs,  75,000;  foxes, 
1,500;  Galloway  cattle,  3,500;  marmots,  65,000; 
sables,  600;  with  a  few  seals  and  miscellaneous 
furs. 

The  most  expensive  and  highly  prized  fur  is  the 
Russian  sable.  The  ermine,  a  small  animal,  a 
member  of  the  mink  family,  found  in  northern 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  formerly  furnished 
the  fur  that  lined  the  robes  of  kings  and  queens. 
One  king  of  France  used  over  700  ermine  skins  to 
line  his  robe.  The  fur  in  summer  is  a  tint  of 
brown  in  color,  but  in  winter  is  snow-white,  with 
the  exception  of  the  tail,  which  is  black.  This  is 
used  to  ornament  robes  and  muffs.  The  best  er- 
mine furs  come  from  Hudson  bay,  Siberia,  and 
Lapland. 

The  seal  fur  is  probably  the  most  generally  used 
fur.  This  fur,  soaked  in  water  and  frozen,  makes 
the  best  shoe  the  Esquimau  can  use  for  his  sledge ; 
while  its  use  in  caps,  capes  and  cloaks  is  common  in 
all  northern  countries.  The  greatest  region  for 
the  sealing  industry  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Priby- 
lof  Islands,  Alaska.  The  United  States  purchased 
Alaska  of  Russia  in  1869,  and  in  1870  the  Alaska 
Commercial  Company  leased  the  right  to  take  100,- 
000  seals  per  year,  agreeing  to  pay  $50,000  rent 
per  year  and  a  tax  of  $2  per  sealskin.    British  Co- 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


185 


lumbian  and  Alaskan  sealers  have  carried  on  pela- 
gic sealing  (killing  female  seals  on  the  way  to  their 
breeding-grounds)  with  such  wanton  destruction, 
that  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  have 
prohibited  pelagic  sealing,  as  it  threatens  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  seal. 

The  otter  possesses  a  glossy  brown  fur  that  is 
so  highly  prized  that  the  American  species  is  well- 
nigh  exterminated. 

The  beaver  is  at  home  in  T^^orth  America.  Its 
fur  is  much  used  in  muffs,  capes,  and  hats. 

The  Novgorod  fair  is  the  annual  fur  market  of 
Russia.  The  semi-yearly  fur  shows  of  Leipsic 
permit  Russia,  Germany,  Austria,  Turkey  and 
other  central  European  nations  to  exchange  pelts 
and  fur  manufactures.  The  greatest  fur  market 
in  the  commercial  world  is  London.  Most  of  the 
Canadian,  Australian,  and  a  large  majority  of  the 
seal  furs  of  the  world  are  sent  to  the  London  fur 
manufacturers. 

The  most  important  furs  used  in  the  St.  Paul 
manufactures  are: 

1.  Hair  and  wool  seal  —  ^orth  Atlantic  and 

Pacific  oceans. 

2.  Sea  otter  —  North  Pacific  ocean. 

3.  Wombat  —  Australia. 

4.  Kangaroo  —  Australia. 

5.  Wallaby  —  Australia. 

6.  Skunk  —  !N^orth  America. 

7.  Beaver  —  Northern     United     States     and 

Canada. 

8.  Bear  —  Northern  United  States  and  Can- 

ada. 

9.  Badger  —  Northern  United  States  and  Can- 

ada. 
10.  Fisher  —  Northern  United  States  and  Can- 


11.  Otter  —  United  States,  Canada  and  Japan, 

( The  otter  is  a  native  of  Russia,  Mfhere  its  fur  is 
highly  prized.) 


12.  Wolverine  —  Canada. 

13.  Musk-ox  —  Canada. 

14.  Lynx  —  Canada. 

15.  Wolf  —  United  States,  Canada,  Russia. 

16.  Mink  —  United  States  and  Canada. 

17.  Muskrat  —  United  States. 

18.  Wildcat  —  United  States. 

19.  Raccoon  —  United  States. 

20.  Ring-tailed  cat  —  California. 

21.  American  marten— Northern  United  States, 

Alaska,  and  Canada. 

22.  Opossum  —  America  and  Australia. 

23.  Nutria — South  America. 

24.  Persian  lamb  —  Western  Asia. 

25.  Conies  and  hares  —  Belgium,  France,  Rus- 

sia, and  Australia. 

( One  million  Siberian  gray  squirrels  enter  the 
fur  markets  of  the  world  yearly.) 

26.  Marmot  —  Russia  and  Western  Asia. 

27.  Foxes    (silver,   gray,   white,   blue,   red)  — 

Alaska,     British    America,     Northern 
United  States,  Russia,  and  Japan. 

28.  Sable  —  Northern  Europe. 

29.  Stone  marten  —  Northern  Europe. 

The  fur  commerce  of  the  United  States  amounts 
to  twenty  million  dollars  annually. 

For  many  years  the  American  bison  or  buffalo 
furnished  valuable  carriage-  and  lap-robes,  the  fur 
being  very  highly  prized,  and  buffalo-meat  was 
considered  quite  palatable.  Countless  thousands 
roamed  over  the  grassy  plains  of  the  great  West. 
To-day  the  buffalo  is  well-nigh  extinct. 

The  world's  best  furs  come  from  the  animals 
of  the  polar  regions  of  the  earth. 

London  prices  are  fixed  twice  a  year  —  in  March 
and  August  —  by  a  board  composed  of  the  leading 
fur  dealers  of  this  metropolis.  Prices  of  furs 
throughout  the  commercial  world,  save  Russia 
alone,  are  gauged  according  to  this  scale. 


186 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


LEATHER  COMMERCE. 


Leather  is  made  from  the  skins  of  animals.  All 
flesh  particles  are  removed  from  the  skins,  and 
they  are  next  soaked  in  a  lime  solution  which 
loosens  the  hair,  so  it  can  be  removed.  Kext,  the 
skins  are  soaked  in  barley  or  some  weak  acid  solu- 
tion to  open  up  the  pores  of  the  skins.  Then,  dried 
oak  or  hemlock  bark  that  has  previously  been  re- 
duced to  a  coarse  powder  is  rolled  up  with  the 
skins,  and  they  are  left  for  many  weeks  in  a  water 
bath.  The  skins  become  flexible  and  strong  by 
this  process,  which  is  called  tanning.  The  world's 
leather  tanneries  use  millions  of  pounds  of  bark 
each  year. 

The  oak  has  for  centuries  supplied  tanneries 
with  their  bark.  In  Spain  the  inner  bark  of  the 
cork  oak  {Quercus  suher),  in  Egj'pt  the  African 
oak  {Q.  coccifera),  in  Great  Britain,  central  Eu- 
rope and  the  United  States  the  white  oak  (Q. 
alba),  red  oak  {Q.  rubra),  black  oak  {Q.  fincfo- 
ria),  burr  oak  (Q.  macrocarpa),  hemlock  and  birch 
furnish  tanneries  their  barks.  These  barks  are 
believed  to  give  the  leather  good  weight  and  make 
it  firm  and  hard.  The  mimosa  bark  in  Australia, 
willow  bark  in  Russia,  and  mangrove  bark  in 
tropical  countries,  are  much  used  for  tanning 
leather. 

When  taken  from  the  tanning-vats,  the  skins 
are  thoroughly  dried  and  made  smooth  by  being 
passed  between  heavy  rollers.  In  this  way  the 
skins  of  horses,  cows,  calves  and  oxen  in  Europe 
and  America  are  converted  into  leather.  The 
skins  of  wild  animals  of  Mexico,  Central  America 
and  South  America  and  other  countries,  desired 
for  leather,  are  similarly  treated.  The  skins  of 
goats  found  in  Switzerland  and  Morocco  are  used 
to  make  morocco  leather.  The  skins  of  young 
goats  and  lambs  make  kid  leather,  much  used  in 
glove  manufactories.  Sheepskin  forms  a  soft 
leather  much  used  by  bookbinderies.     Parchment, 


the  earliest  material  for  scrolls,  is  a  kind  of  leather 
made  from  the  skins  of  sheep  and  goats.  This  was 
the  first  leather  made.  The  first  copies  of  the 
Bible  were  made  of  parchment.  The  skins  of 
calves  furnish  the  material  for  vellum,  a  fine 
parchment.  In  ancient  times  this  was  much  used 
for  leaves  of  books. 

The  boot-and-shoe  manufactories  of  England, 
Germany,  France  and  the  New  England  and  cen- 
tral Mississippi  States  of  our  own  nation  use  many 
million  pounds  of  kangaroo,  alligator,  horse,  cow 
and  calfskin  leather  for  uppers  and  oxhide  for 
soles.  Oxhide  is  also  much  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  harness. 

European  nations  and  the  United  States  are  the 
chief  leather-producing  countries  of  the  world. 
These  nations  import  hides  from  many  lands,  as 
they  cannot  meet  the  demand  for  leather  with  the 
home  product.  Europe  annually  imports  eighteen 
million  pounds  of  hides,  chiefly  from  South  Amer- 
ica, Australia,  and  India.  The  leather  manufac- 
tories of  our  own  nation  use  all  the  product  of  our 
home  tanneries,  and  now  annually  import  over 
thirty-seven  million  dollars'  worth  of  hides  and 
leather.  These  come  chiefly  from  the  East  Indies, 
Great  Britain,  France,  Argentina,  Germany,  Rus- 
sia, Brazil,  Mexico,  China,  Canada,  Uruguay,  and 
Australia.  The  amount  of  purchase  is,  for  1900, 
in  order  named. 

A  new  method  of  acid  tanning  was  discovered  in 
1856,  and  used  in  the  tanneries  near  Philadelphia. 
This  has  made  that  city  the  leather  metropolis  of 
the  commercial  world. 

The  ten  leading  cities  in  our  nation  engaged  in 
the  boot-and-shoe  industry  rank  as  follows:  Lynn 
(Mass.),  Brockton  (Mass.),  Haverhill  (Mass.), 
Chicago,  Philadelphia,  Rochester,  Marlboro 
(Mass.),  'New  York,  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis.  (Sta- 
tistics for  1890.) 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


'\^^''''^'^^lSlrY 


Or 


187 


The  United  States  now  manufactures  upward 
of  260  million  dollars'  worth  of  boots  and  shoes 
annually,  nearly  one-half  of  which  is  the  product 
of  the  Massachusetts  factories.  Boston  is  the 
metropolis  of  ISTew  England  and  New  England 
manufactures  two-thirds  of  the  nation's  boots  and 


shoes.     This  makes  Boston  the  greatest  boot-and'- 
shoe  market  in  the  nation. 

While  our  exports  of  leather  manufactures  have 
increased  200  per  cent,  within  the  last  ten  years, 
yet  we  now  export  ten  million  dollars  less  of 
leather  goods  than  we  import  in  hides  and  skins. 


Plucking  the  beautiful  plumage  from  the  famous  Biped  of  the  Desert, 
in  South  Africa. 


188 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


IMPROVEMENTS  IN  THE  NILE. 


1.  Removal  of  Sudd.  The  Nile  river  is  a 
stream  of  great  importance  commercially  to  Egypt, 
both  for  its  navigation  and  its  annual  sedimentary 
deposit  from  the  yearly  overflow.  Above  the  city 
of  Khartoum,  mats  of  grass,  papyrus  and  other 
water-plants  interlace  with  trunks  and  limbs  of  the 
ambatch,  a  soft-wooded,  leguminous  tree,  making 
dense  masses  of  vegetation  called  sudd.  In  the 
White  Nile,  one  of  three  branches  of  the  upper 
Nile,  British  gunboats  in  1898  found  sudd  com- 
pletely obstructed  navigation,  the  floating  mass 
being  on  an  average  four  feet  thick.  The  Egyp- 
tian government  organized  a  "  sudd-cutting  expedi: 
tion,"  and  placed  Major  Peake,  of  the  English 
Royal  Artillery,  in  command.  The  following  ex- 
tracts are  taken  from  the  Major's  journal,  and 
show  the  character  of  this  work : 

"  When  one  arrives  at  a  block  it  is  very  curious. 
All  of  a  sudden  the  river  ceases  to  be.  Nothing 
but  an  exquisite  greenness  of  tall  papyrus  about 
fourteen  feet  high  entwined  with  convolvulus,  the 
hippos  and  crocodiles  disporting  themselves,  and 
numerous  wonderful  birds.  .  .  .  On  arriving 
at  a  block  we  tie  up  the  steamer  and  set  everything 
on  fire,  then  cut  down  all  the  dead  papyrus,  which 
is  on  the  sudd,  until  it  soon  looks  like  a  very  rough 
field.  Then  this  field  is  dug  into  small  sections 
four  or  five  yards  square;  the  trenches  are  dug 
to  about  two  feet  under  water,  the  sudd  itself  being 
from  one  to  four  feet  above  water  and  from  six 
to  ten  underneath.  Next  we  put  pieces  of  wood 
round  our  section  (cut-up  telegraph  poles),  fix  a 
wire  hawser  round  the  section,  shoved  well  down 
in  the  trenches  and  behind  the  posts,  and  bring  the 
two  ends  on  the  steamer.  The  steamer  then  backs 
astern,  and  eventually  pulls  out  the  section,  which 
floats  away  down-stream.  The  wire  is  got  on  board 
again,  the  poles  recovered,  and  the  steamer  pro- 
ceeds for  another .  section.     The  force  and  jerk 


which  the  steamer  brings  on  the  wire  severs  the 
roots  of  the  section  underneath  from  the  others  — 
or  at  least  something  does! 

"  On  the  3d  [of  March]  the  seventh  block  burst, 
and  hundreds  and  hundreds  of  tons  of  sudd  came 
tearing  down,  carrying  my  steamer  and  barge  away 
with  it.  I  had  a  most  anxious  time,  as  I  was  in  a 
rather  dangerous  position  —  pitch-dark  and  no 
moon,  simply  surrounded  by  sudd,  no  water  visible 
at  all.  After  two  hours  I  luckily  managed  to  get 
hold  of  a  bank,  and  hung  on  there.  The  sudd  con- 
tinued to  stream  down  for  two  whole  days  and  a 
night." 

In  January,  1900,  Major  Peake  began  his  work 
on  the  Bahr-el-Gibel  (White  Nile)  at  8°  34'  N. 
latitude,  and  on  May  17th  of  the  same  year  he 
telegraphed  that  he  had  opened'  up  navigation  to 
Uganda,  which  cleared  the  Nile  of  its  sudd.  This 
has  proven  a  great  advantage,  in  carrying  civiliza- 
tion and  trade  to  the  Soudanese  tribes  of  the  in- 
terior, while  it  has  reclaimed  the  Upper  Nile  for 
a  highway  of  commerce. 

2.  The  Dams  of  the  Nile.  The  ancient  Egyp- 
tians built  many  canals  and  waterways  that  led 
from  the  Nile.  These  ofttimes  reclaimed  barren 
wastes  and  widened  the  fertile  portions  of  the  val- 
ley. During  Joseph's  rule  in  Egypt  the  Nile  im- 
provements were  quite  extensive,  one  waterway, 
the  Bahr  Yussuf  (Water  of  Joseph),  has  survived 
the  demolition  of  the  centuries. 

Napoleon  is  said  to  have  remarked,  when  he  vis- 
ited Egypt  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
that  a  dam  at  Cairo  would  double  the  area  of  tilla- 
ble land  in  the  delta.  Later,  a  French  engineer 
was  secured  by  ruler  Mehemet  Ali  to  draw  up 
plans  for  this  work.  The  purpose  was  to  increase 
the  area  of  cotton  and  sugar  land  by  constructing 
two  barrages,  one  in  the  Damietta  and  the  other  in 
the  Rosetta  mouth  of  the  Nile.     Lack  of  funds 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


189 


and  skilled  labor  prevented  the  completion  of  the 
construction  plans.  After  twenty  years'  work  the 
extensive  viaduct  of  arches  was  completed,  and  the 
sluices  closed.  When  the  Xile  was  at  its  flood,  the 
great  structure  cracked  in  all  directions  and  threat- 
ened to  actually  collapse.  To  prevent  this,  the 
sluices  were  opened,  and  the  river  reduced  to  its 
normal  height.  The  dam  was  saved,  but  it  was 
rendered  useless. 

Sir  Colon  Moncrieff  and  Mr.  Willcocks  —  two 
talented  British  engineers  —  later  bored  beneath 
the  piers  and  made  a  firm  foundation  for  these 
barrages  in  the  river-bed,  overhauled  the  French- 
man's structure,  and  put  the  w^hole  in  such  a  good 
state  of  repair  that  since  1889  the  barrages  have 
fulfilled  their  mission  and  the  money  thus  ex- 
pended has  been  returned  many  fold  in  the  in- 
creased area  of  tillable  land  in  the  delta. 

The  success  of  the  Cairo  dam  led  engineers  to 
discuss  the  feasibility  of  storing  the  water  of  the 
upper  Xile.  The  designer  of  the  great  Firth 
bridge  —  Sir  Benjamin  Baker, —  Sir  John  Aird, 
England's  greatest  contractor,  and  Mr.  Ernest 
Cassel,  London's  greatest  financier,  were  interested 
in  the  Upper  Xile  improvements,  and  when  they 
proposed  to  build  two  dams  and  a  number  of  irri- 
gating canals  the  government  accepted  the  proposal. 
The  river  at  Assouan  is  a  mile  wide.  To  render 
the  foundation  sufficiently  strong,  the  river  was 
turned  from  its  course,  and  a  huge  trench  dug  100 


feet  deep  and  filled  with  concrete  rubble.  Upon 
this  solid  bed  were  built  the  granite  piers  that  sup- 
port this  mile  and  one-quarter  viaduct.  The  180 
sluices  of  the  Assouan  dam  have  the  Stoney  steel 
doors,  the  mechanism  of  which' is  so  nicely  adjusted 
that  a  lever  which  a  child  can  work  raises  and  low- 
ers these  heavy  water-gates.  This  dam  stores  one 
billion  tons  of  water,  and  the  wall,  rising  90  feet 
above  low  Nile,  gives  a  lake  that  will  fertilize  both 
sides  of  the  river's  valley  for  140  miles. 

Between  300  and  400  miles  below  Assouan  is 
Assiout,  where  another  remarkable  reservoir  is 
located.  The  dam  is  here  laid  on  a  foundation  of 
solid  masonry  in  the  bed  of  the  river,  forty  feet 
below  low-water  level.  The  wall  is  eighty-seven 
feet  wide  and  one-half  mile  long.  To  prevent 
any  undermining  of  the  dam,  large  cast-iron  piles 
were  driven  into  the  bed  of  the  river  thirteen  feet, 
both  above  and  below  the  dam.  The  sluices  of  the 
Assiout  weir  number  111,  with  sluice-gates  similar 
to  the  water-gates  of  the  Assouan  weir.  To  the 
west  of  the  dam,  a  navigation  lock  permits  the 
traffic  of  the  Upper  Nile  to  pass  unimpeded 
through  a  fifty-foot  passage.  Thus  these  dams  are 
no  obstruction  to  commerce,  while  their  irrigating 
waters  add  fully  two  and  one-half  thousand  miles 
of  fertile  land  to  the  Xile  valley. 

What  the  Pyramids  were  to  the  ancient  world, 
the  sudd  dredging  and  Xile  dams  are  to  the  en- 
gineering and  commercial  world  to-day. 


190 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


COMMERCIAL  MUSEUMS. 


The  commercial  museum  is  established  to  foster 
a  nation's  trade.  It  gives  the  producer  the  best 
method  of  packing  his  wares,  cost  of  transportation 
and  trade  conditions  in  advantageous  foreign  mar- 
kets. It  shows  the  exporter  how  to  introduce  his 
merchandise  where  foreign  weights  and  measures 
prevail.  It  also  furnishes  him  lists  of  desirable 
trade  dealers  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Museums 
often  have  samples  of  raw  materials  as  well  as 
manufactured  goods  from  every  country  of  the 
commercial  world.  Museums  receive  the  consular 
reports  of  commercial  nations,  and  from  these 
sources  make  reliable  statistics  of  trade.  This 
makes  the  museum  an  emporium  of  knowledge  on 
commerce.  Many  museums  send  investigators  to 
foreign  ports  to  study  trade  conditions.  Through 
these  specialists  and  the  consular  statements  the 
museum  gains  the  information  that  will  help  its 
nation  meet  the  demand  for  goods  in  new  markets. 

European  countries  were  the  first  nations  to  see 
the  advantages  of  trade  obtained  through  commer- 
cial museums.  The  leading  museums  are  located 
as  follows: 

Great  Britain 1 

Belgium 9 

Holland 4 

Germany 17 

Austria 3 

France  26 


Italy 

Turkey  

Greece  , 

Japan   

United  States 


Some  museums  are  directed  by  province  or  na- 
tional supervision,  some  by  chambers  of  commerce, 
and  some  by  private  enterprise.  The  museum  es- 
tablished at  Vienna,  Austria,  in  1880,  is  un- 
doubtedly the  most  influential  museum  in  the 
world  at  the  present  time. 

The  commercial  museum  of  our  own  nation  was 
established  at  Philadelphia  by  ordinance  of  that 
city's  council,  June  15,  1894.  It  is  supported 
largely  by  municipal  appropriations.  Its  board  of 
trustees  numbers  fourteen  of  the  most  prominent 
business  men  of  Philadelphia,  w^ith  the  Governor 


of  Pennsylvania,  Mayor  of  Philadelphia,  and  six 
other  State  and  city  ofiicials  as  ex  officio  members 
of  the  board.  An  advisory  board  numbers  repre- 
sentatives of  the  leading  commercial  organizations 
of  this  nation  and  such  other  nations  as  have  direct 
trade  through  corporative  interests  with  the  United 
States.  This  board  helps  to  make  the  Work  of  the 
museum  international  in  its  general  scope. 

The  museum  does  not  engage  in  trade  itself,  is 
non-political  in  organization,  and  derives  no  profit 
from  any  of  its  many  lines  of  work,  all  charges 
for  special  service  being  based  on  the  actual  cost. 
Prices  current  and  market  reports  from  all  im- 
portant centers  of  commerce  are  always  on  file, 
while  more  than  20,000  books  and  pamphlets  give 
information  on  trade  elements  of  the  entire  busi- 
ness world.  The  museum  publishes  a  weekly  bul- 
letin giving  valuable  information  on  foreign  trade 
opportunities. 

This  museum  is  in  close  touch  with  the  chamber 
of  commerce  in  over  300  foreign  cities  as  well  as 
all  leading  commercial  cities  of  our  own  land. 
The  following  incidents  show  the  object  lessons 
taught  by  the  samples  of  foreign  manufactures 
shown  at  the  museum : 

A  Pennsylvania  manufacturer  of  plows  while 
looking  through  the  Argentine  samples  in  the  mu- 
seum, saw  the  primitive  plow  made  and  sold  there. 
Within  two  years  he  had  opened  a  trade  in  that 
region  and  sold  20,000  of  his  plows. 

A  glass-maker  passing  through  the  sample-room 
of  the  museum  found  a  sample  of  his  own  glass- 
ware in  a  foreign  exhibit.  On  investigation,  he 
found  that  an  English  firm  had  for  years  been  sell- 
ing his  glassware  in  Australia  at  such  an  advance 
over  his  factory  price  that  they  made  a  good  profit. 
The  glass-maker  soon  opened  a  good  trade  with 
Australia,  shipping  from  the  factory  to  dealers  in 
this  South  Sea  nation. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


191 


The  commercial  collection  of  the  Phila- 
delphia museum  presents  the  manufactures 
of  foreign  nations  in  more  than  a  thousand 
different  lines. 

This  museum  has  made  up  sets  of  statis- 
tical literature,  maps  and  photographs,  and 
placed  them  in  several  hundred  Pennsyl- 
vania schools.  These  exhibits  quicken 
geographical  study  along  commercial  lines. 
Loan  exhibits  are  sent  to  many  cities  to 
instruct  those  interested  in  foreign  prod- 
ucts and  manufactures.  In  one  depart- 
ment of  the  Philadelphia  museum  are 
found  American  and  foreign  catalogues. 
The  American  catalogues  give  foreign 
merchants  the  products  of  American  fac- 
tories, and  the  foreign  catalogues  tell  our 
American  manufacturer  what  goods  are 
produced  by  his  competitors  in  other  coun- 
tries. 


The  President's  Flag  and  East  Room  Decorations,  Army  and  Navy 
Reception,  Washington,  U.  S.  A. 


A  Swiss  Home  and  its  Home-Maker. 


The  natural  products  of  foreign  coun- 
tries comprise  many  hundred  thousands  of 
specimens.  This  collection  is  classified  by 
nation  and  character  of  the  product.  Ad- 
joining this  room  are  the  laboratories, 
[where  the  industrial  value  of  each  product 
is  determined. 

Although  our  commercial  museum  is 
but  a  comparatively  new  institution,  it  is 
considered  by  foreign  as  well  as  home 
students  of  commerce  as  a  model  museum, 
and  a  major  factor  in  our  rapidly  expand- 
ing commerce.  The  Department  of  State 
has  recognized  our  commercial  museum  by 
instructing  United  States  consuls  to  assist 
the  museum  in  its  work  in  foreign  marts 
of  trade. 

The  Philadelphia  museum  is  to  the 
United  States  what  the  Imperial  Institute 
is  to  the  British  empire  —  a  national  fac- 
tor in  its  commercial  development. 


192 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


The  New  Holyoke  (Mass.)  Dam. 

NATUKAL  FEATURES  THAT  INFLUENCE  COMMERCE. 


Navigable   Rivers    of   Importance. 

Uame                                                              Length,  Area  of  Basin, 

in  miles.  in  sq.  miles. 

1.  Amazon    3400  2,320,000 

2.  Kongo    2500  1,500,000 

3.  Yenesei 3000  1,400,000 

4.  mie    3900  1,300,000 

5.  Mississippi 4200  1,250,000 

6.  La  Plata 2500  1,150,000 

7.  Obi 3000  1,100,000 

8.  Niger   2900  1,000,000 

9.  Lena 2800  900,000 

10.  Amur 2700  780,000 

11.  Yangtse 3100  690,000 

12.  Mackenzie 2400  680,000 

13.  Ganges-Brahmaputra 1800  600,000 

14.  Volga   2300  590,000 

15.  Zambesi 1600  580,000 

16.  St.  Lawrence 2100  565,000 

17.  Euphrates 2000  490,000 

18.  Nelson-Saskatchewan 1900  470,000 

19.  Orinoco    1500  425,000 

20.  Hoang 2800  390,000 

21.  Yukon 2000  380,000 

22.  Indus 1900  360,000 


„  Length,       Area  of  Basin, 

^'*"**'                                                           in  miles.  in  sq.  miles. 

23.  Murray 1100  350,000 

24.  Danube 1800  320,000 

25.  Columbia   1400  290,000 

26.  Mekong 2600  280,000 

27.  Orange 1200  270,000 

28.  Eio  Grande 1800  230,000 

29.  Colorado 1000  230,000 

30.  San  Francisco 1800  210,000 

31.  Dneiper 1300  197,000 

32.  Irawadi ,.  .  .1200  180,000 

33.  Rhine 965  90,000 

34.  Rhone 550  33,000 

Locate,  give  source,  direction,  mouth,  and  name  com- 
mercial cities  situated  on  each  river. 

IJalces   of   Commercial   Importance. 

Name.  Depth.         Altitude.       ^^^u*^'^' 

1.  Caspian 3100       —85  169,000 

2.  Victoria 620       4000  32,000 

3.  Superior    1008         602  31,000 

4.  Aral • 220         158  26,000 

5.  Huron   702         581  24,000 

6.  Michigan 870         581  22,000 

7.  Tanganyika 1300       2670  14,000 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


193 


The  "Alpine  Spipt's"  Sanctuary.    The  Charnning  Zermatt  and  the  Matterhorn, 

Switzerland. 


liakes  of  Commercial  Iraportance. — Continued. 


Name.                                          Depth.  Altitude. 

8.  Baikal 4500  1400 

9.  Tchad 20  1100 

10.  Erie 210  573 

11.  Winnipeg 72  710 

12.  Balkasli   135  900 

13.  Ontario   738  247 

14.  Ladoga 732  55 

15.  Titicaca 925  12,500 

16.  Nicaragua 320  108 

17.  Great  Salt 50  4200 

18.  Chapala —  7000 

19.  Dead  Sea 1300  —1290 

Locate,  state  facts  showing  commercial 
name  iKjrts  located  upon  each  lake. 


Area  in  sq. 
Miles. 

13,000 

10,000 

10,000 

9000 

8500 

7000 

7000 

3000 

3000 

2000 

1300 

350 

value,  and 


Most   Important   Mountain   Peaks. 

Name  and  Location.  Height,  in  feet. 

1.  Everest  (Asia) 29,002 

2.  Aconcagua  (South  America) 23,910 

3.  Sahama  (South  America) 22,350 

4.  Sorato  (South  America) 21,286 

5.  Chimborazo  (South  America) 20,517 

6.  McKinley  (North  America) 20,464 

7.  Kilimanjaro  (Africa) 20,000 

8.  Logan  (North  America) 19,500 

9.  Demavend   (Asia) 18,846 

10.  Orizaba  (North  America) 18,314 

11.  St.  Elias  (North  America) 18,100 

12.  Kenia  (Africa) 18,000 

13.  Popocatapetl  (North  America) 17,784 

14.  Cotopaxi  (South  America) 16,291 


194 


COMMERCIAL  GEOORAPHY. 


"Old  Faithful "  Geyser,  Yellowstone  Park. 

Most  Important  Mountain  Peaks. — Con- 
tinued. 

Name  and  Location.  Height,  in  feet. 

15.  Whitney  (Xorth  America) 14,890 

16.  Rainier  (North  America) 14,526 

17.  Pike's  Peak  (:N'orth  America)  .  .  .14,147 

18.  Blanc  (Europe) : 15,744 

19.  Fujiyama    (Asia) 14,177 

20.  Vesuvius  (Europe)    14,205 

21.  Mauna  Kea  (Hawaii) 13,953 

22.  Matterhorn  (Europe) 14,705 

23.  Etna  (Europe)    10,875 

24.  Hecla  (Iceland) 5,108 

25.  St.  Gothard   (Europe) 10,000 

26.  Cenis   (Europe) 11,000 

27.  Stromboli   (Europe) 3,000 

28.  Washington  (North  America)  ...    6,288 

29.  Shasta  (North  America) 14,350 

30.  Hood  (North  America) 11,934 

31.  Fremont's  (North  America) 13,790 

32.  Mitchell  (North  America) 6,710 


Locate  in  the  continent  and  mountain  system. 
Name  some  facts  interesting  or  instructive  about 
each  peak,  and  state  what  effect  the  mountain 
range  in  which  each  peak  is  located  has  upon  civili- 
zation or  commerce. 

The    Greatest   Natural   Wonders. 

Name.  Location. 

1.  Glaciers  —  Canada,  B.  A. ;   Washington, 

U.  S.  A. ;    Switzerland,  Europe. 

2.  Geysers  —  Iceland,     Danish     America ; 

Yellowstone  Park,   U.    S.   A. ;    New 
Zealand,  Australasia. 

3.  Mt.  Brocken  —  Germany,  Europe. 

4.  The  Boiling  Mountain  —  Ecuador,  S.  A. 

5.  Kilhorn  Peak  —  Norway,  Europe. 

6.  Glass     Mountain  —  Yellowstone     Park, 

U.  S.  A. 

7.  Profile  Mountain — Franconia,  Germany. 

8.  Pitch  Lake  —  Trinidad,  West  Indies. 

9.  The  Maelstrom  —  Off  Lafoden  Islands, 

Europe. 


Royal  Gorge,  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Arkansas,  Colorado,  U.  S.  A. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


196 


The   Greatest   Natural  Wonders. — Cont. 

Name.  Location. 

10.  Aurora    Borealis    as    seen    in    Danisli 

America. 

11.  Garden  of  the  Gods — Colorado,  U.  S.  A. 

12.  Lost  River  —  Indiana,  U.  S.  A. 

13.  Pictured  Rocks — Lake  Superior,  U.S.A. 

14.  Giant's  Causeway  —  Ireland,  Europe. 

15.  Grand  Canyon — Colorado  river,  U.S.A. 

16.  Palisades  of  LIudson  river,  U.  S.  A. 

17.  Yosemite  Valley  —  California,  U.  S.  A. 

18.  The   Mariposa  Big  Trees  —  California, 

U.  S.  A. 

19.  Trees  and  animals  of  Australia. 

20.  Watkins  Glen  —  Xew  York,  U.  S.  A. 

21.  Bad    Lands  —  South    Dakota    and    Ne- 

braska, U.  S.  A. 

22.  The  Great  Spring— Florida,  U.  S.  A. 

23.  Hot  Springs  —  Arkansas,  U.  S.  A. 

24.  Sutherland  Falls  —  New  Zealand. 

25.  Grand  River  Falls  —  Labrador,  N.  America 


Niagara  Falls  In  Winter. 


iagara  Falls  in  Summer 


The   Greatest   Natural   Wonders.— Con<. 

Name.  Location. 

26.  Falls  of  Niagara  river — North  America. 

27.  Multnomah  Falls  —  Oregon,  U.  S.  A. 

28.  Snoqualmie  Falls — Washington,  U.S.A. 

29.  Victoria  Falls  —  Zambesi  river,  Africa. 

30.  Stambach  Falls  —  Switzerland,  Europe. 

31.  Falls  of  St.  Anthony — Minnesota,  U.S.A. 

32.  Echo  Canyon  — Utah,  U.  S.  A. 

33.  Echo  Cave  —  Mexico,  North  America. 

34.  Mammoth  Cave  —  Kentucky,  U.  S.  A. 

35.  Wyandotte  Cave  —  Indiana,  U.  S.  A. 

36.  Luray  Cave  —  Virginia,  U.  S.  A. 

37.  Fingal's  Cave  —  Isle  of  Staffa,  Europe. 

38.  Howe's  Cave  — New  York,  U.  S.  A. 

39.  Nicojack  Cave  —  Georgia,  TJ.  S.  A. 

40.  Cave  of  Adelsburg  —  Austria,  Europe. 

41.  Grotto  of  Capri  —  Italy,  Europe. 

42.  Natural    Bridges — Virginia,    Alabama, 

California,  U.  S.  A. 

43.  Vichy  Springs  —  France,  Europe. 

44.  Lake  Cirknitzer  —  Austria,  Europe. 


196 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Looking  through  the  great  Forth  Bridge  (8300  feet  long),  Scotland. 


Tlie   Greatest   Natural  Worx^ers.— Continued. 

Name,  '  Location. 

45.  Indian  Mounds  —  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  U.S. 

46.  Pyramids  —  Egypt,  Africa. 

47.  Leaning  Tower  —  Pisa,  Italy,  Europe. 

48.  Wall  of  China  — Asia. 

49.  St.  Gothard  Tunnel  —  Alps. 

50.  Mt.  Cenis  Tunnel  —  Alps. 

51.  Simplon  Tunnel  —  Alps. 

52.  Cascade  Tunnel — Cascade  Mountains,  U.S.A. 

53.  Hoosac  Tunnel  —  Hoosac  Mountains,  U.  S.  A. 

54.  Alpine  Tunnel  —  Eocky  Mountains,  U.  S.  A. 

An   Alaskan   Volcano. 

In  the  Bering  sea,  about  midway  between  the 
Aleutian  and  Pribilof  Islands,  is  a  peculiar  vol- 
canic center.  Here  was  thrown  up  a  volcanic  island 
in  1796.  In  a  shroud  of  steam  and  fog  in  1883 
waters  in  this  region  were  parted  by  a  volcano 
that  sprang  into  being,  rising  to  a  height  of  500 
feet. 


9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 


These  two  volcanoes,  old  and  new  Bogslof, 
are  the  resting-places  of  myriads  of  sea  birds 
and  the  playground  for  multitudes  of  sea 
lions. 

Oceans. 

Name.  Area,  sq.  miles. 

1.  Pacific 71,000,000 

2.  Atlantic 34,000,000 

3.  Indian 28,000,000 

4.  Antarctic 7,000,000 

5.  Arctic 4,000,000 

Give  facts  on  the  commercial  importance  of  each 
ocean.  Which  is  the  greatest  ocean  of  commerce  to- 
day ?    Why  ? 

Principal    Plateaus    of   tlie   World. 

Name.  Location,  Height,  in  feet. 

1.  Thibet,  Chinese  Empire.  .15,000-17,000 

2.  Pamir  (Eoof  of  the  World), 

Northeast  Afghanistan,  14,000-16,000 

3.  Bolivian,  Bolivia 12,500-14,000 

4.  Mexican,   Mexico 6500-8000 

Abyssinian,  Abyssinia 6500-8000 

Colorado,  Colorado 5000-8000 

Iran,  Persia 3000-6000 

Alpine  Plateau,   South  -  Central 

Europe 3500-4000 

Spanish,   Spain 3000 

Guiana,  Guiana 2000-3000 

South  African,  South  Africa.  .  .  2000-3500 

Desert  Plateau,  Central  Sahara,  2500 

Asia  Minor,  Asia  Minor 1500-2000 

Brazilian,  Brazil 2000-2800 

Arabian,  Arabia 1000-2000 


Bogslof  Volcano,  Bering  Sea,  U.  S.  A. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


197 


COLONIES,    DEPENDENCIES    AND    PROTECTORATES    OF   THE 

COMMERCIAL   WORLD. 


;N"ames  of  countries  controlling  these  colonies 
and  dependencies,  with  area  and  population  of 
latter.     (IJ.  S.  Bureau  of  Statistics.) 


10. 
11. 

12. 


Great  Britain  . 

France  

Germany 

Portugal  

Spain 

Italy  

Austria 

Denmark 

Russia  

Turkey 

China 

United  States. 


■^1 

r 


48 
32 
3 
9 
3 
2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
5 
6 


Totals 128      31,821,382       503,049 


So  w 


11,250,412 

3,617,321 

802,863 

801,060 

245,877 

104,000 

23,262 

86,614 

255,550 

564,500 

2,881,560 

168,287 


Colonies    by   Continents. 

NORTH  AMERICA. 
Names.  Nation  in  Control. 

Bahamas  —  Great  Britain. 
Barbadoes  —  Great  Britain. 
Bermudas  —  Great  Britain. 
Canada  —  Great  Britain. 
Curasao  —  Xetherlands. 
Greenland  —  Denmark. 
Guadeloupe  —  France. 
Honduras,  British  —  Great  Britain. 
Jamaica  —  Great  Britain. 
Leeward  Islands  —  Great  Britain. 
Martinique  —  France. 
Newfoundland  —  Great  Britain. 
Porto  Rico  —  United  States. 
St.  John  —  Denmark. 
St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  —  France. 
St.  Thomas  —  Denmark. 
Saint  Croix  —  Denmark. 
Trinidad  —  Great  Britain. 
Windward  Islands  —  Great  Britain. 


o  si 


344,059 

52,643 

33,912 

9,217 

256 

650 

1,568 

114 

5,684 

17,489 

16,680 

10,177 


SOUTH   AMERICA. 
Names.  Nation  in  Control, 

Falkland  Islands  —  Great  Britain. 
Guiana,  British  —  Great  Britain. 
Guiana,  French  —  France. 
Guiana,  Dutch  —  Xetherlands. 

EUROPE. 
Names.  Nation  in  Control, 

Bosnia  —  Austria. 

Bulgaria,  Turkey. 

Faeroe  Islands  —  Denmark. 

Gibraltar  —  Great  Britain. 

TIerzogovina  —  Austria. 

Iceland  —  Denmark. 

Mala  and  Gozo  —  Great  Britain. 

Roumelia  —  Turkey. 

ASIA. 

Names.  Nation  in  Control, 

Aden  and  Perim  —  Great  Britain. 

A^ajn  —  France. 
•    Bahreim  Islands  —  Great  Britain. 

Baluchistan  —  Great  Britain. 

Bokhara  —  Russia. 

Cambodia  —  France. 

Cg^lon  —  Great  Britain. 

China     dependencies     (Manchuria,     Mongolia, 
Tibet,  Jungaria,  East  Turkestan)  —  China. 

Cochin  China  —  France. 

Hong  Kong  —  Great  Britain. 

India,  British  —  Great  Britain. 

India,  French  (area  only  200  square  miles)  — 
France. 

India,  Portuguese  (area  1295  square  miles)  — 
Portugal. 

Khiva  —  Russia. 

Macao  —  Portugal. 

Malay  (federated  native  states) — Great  Britain. 

Samos  —  Turkey. 


198                                                  COMMERCIAL 

GEOGRAPHY. 

• 

Sikkim  —  Great  Britain. 

Reunion  —  France. 

Straits  Settlements  —  Great  Britain. 

St.  Helena  —  Great  Britain. 

Tonquin  —  France. 

AFRICA. 
Names.                     Nation  in  Control. 

Algeria  —  France. 

St.  Marie  —  France. 
Senegambia  —  France. 
Sierra  Leone  —  Great  Britain. 
Somali  —  Great  Britain. 

Angola  —  Portugal. 
Ascension  —  Great  Britain. 
Azores  and  Madeira  Islands  —  Portugal. 
Basutoland  —  Great  Britain. 
Bechuanaland  —  Great  Britain. 
British  East  Africa  —  Great  Britain. 
British  Central  Africa  —  Great  Britain. 
British  South  Africa  —  Great  Britain. 
Canary  Islands — Spain. 
Cape  Colony  —  Great  Britain. 
Cape  Verde  Islands  —  Portugal. 
Ceuta  —  Spain. 

The  Transvaal  Country  —  Fighting  Great  Brit- 
ain for  absolute  independence. 
Tripoli  —  Turkey. 
Tristan  d'Acunha  —  Great  Britain. 
Tunis  —  France. 
Uganda  —  Great  Britain. 
Zanzibar  —  Great  Britain. 
Zululand  —  Great  Britain. 

AUSTRALASIA. 
Names.                                       Nation  in  Control. 

Bismarck  Archipelago  —  Germany. 
Borneo,  British  North  —  Great  Britain. 

Comoro  Islands  —  France. 

Borneo,  Dutch  —  Netherlands. 

Dahomey  —  France. 

Caroline  Islands  and  Palaos  —  Spain, 

Egypt  —  Turkey. 
Erythrea  —  Italy. 
Fernando  Po  —  Spain. 

Emperor  William's  Land  —  Germany. 
Fiji  and  Rotuma  Isles  —  Great  Britain. 
Guam  —  United  States. 

French  Sudan  —  France. 

Hawaii  —  United  States. 

Gaboon  Congo  —  France. 

Java  and  Madura  —  Netherlands. 

Gambia  —  Great  Britain. 

Marquesas  Islands  —  France. 

German  East  Africa  —  Germany. 

New  Guinea,  British  —  Great  Britain. 

German  S.  W.  Africa  —  Germany. 

New  Guinea,  Dutch  ^  Netherlands. 

Gold  Coast,  British  —  Great  Britain. 

New  South  Wales  —  Great  Britain. 

Gold  Coast,  French  —  France. 

New  Zealand  —  Great  Britain. 

Kamerun  —  Germany. 

Kongo  Free  State  —  Belgium  (protectorate). 

Lagos  —  Great  Britain. 

Philippine  Islands  —  United  States. 

Queensland  —  Great  Britain. 

Samoan  Islands  —  Germany  and  United  States. 

Logoland  —  Germany. 
Madagascar  —  France. 

South  Australia  —  Great  Britain. 

Society  Islands  and  dependencies  —  France. 

Mauritius  and  dependencies  —  Great  Britain. 

Suiriatra  —  Netherlands. 

Mayotte  and  Nossi  Be  —  France. 

Tasmania  —  Great  Britain. 

Mozambique  —  Portugal. 
Xatal  —  Great  Britain. 

Timorard  Archipelago  —  Netherlands. 
Tutuila  —  L'nited  States. 

Niger  Territories  —  Great  Britain. 

Victoria  —  Great  Britain. 

Obock  and  Tajura  —  France. 
Providence  Island  —  Germany. 

Wake  Island  —  United  States. 
West  Australia  —  Great  Britain. 

COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


199 


Our  Territorial  Possessions. 

1.  Hawaii. — Area,  4210  square 
miles. 

Maui,  760  square  miles. 

Oahu,  600  square  miles. 

Kauai,  590  square  miles. 

Molkai,  270  square  miles. 

Lauai,  150  square  miles. 

Nihau,  97  square  miles. 

Kahoolawe,  63  square  miles. 

The  exportation  of  sugar  in 
1897  was  520  million  pounds, 
coffee  exportation  was  337,000 
pounds,  and  rice  exportation  the 
same  year  was  5^  million  pounds. 
Xearly  all  the  necessities  of  life 
have  to  be  imported.  There  are 
71  miles  of  railroad  and  250  miles 
of  telegraph  in  the  islands.  The 
present  territorial  government  was 
inaugurated  at  Honolulu,  June 
14th,  1900.  The  inauguration  of 
Governor  Dole  took  place  at  the 
capitol  steps. 

The  islands  form  a  territory  styled  the  Terri- 
tory of  Hawaii,  and  are  attached  to  the  depart- 
ment of  California.  The  Legislature  of  the  Ter- 
ritory consists  of  two  houses  —  a  Senate  of  15 
members,  elected  for  four  years,  and  a  House  of 
Representatives  of  30,  elected  for  two  years.  The 
Legislature  meets  biennially,  and  its  sessions  are 
limited  to  sixty  days.  The  capital  is  Honolulu, 
a  city  of  nearly  40,000. 

2.  Wake  Island.    (See  page  105.) 

3.  Guam.  This  is  the  largest  island  of  the 
Ladrone  Archipelago,  and  lies  directly  in  the 
trade  route  from  San  Francisco  to  the  Philippine 
Islands.  The  island  is  32  miles  long  and  100 
miles  in  circumference.  The  capital  is  Agana,  a 
city  of  5000.  The  island  is  a  military  territory, 
whose  governor  is  appointed  by  the  President  of 
the  L^nited  States.    It  is  valuable  as  a  coaling  sta- 


Scotland's  Pride  —  the  great  Forth  Bridge  and  the  Highland  Kilt. 


tion,  and  is  a  base  of  naval  supplies  for  the  United 
States  navy. 

4.  Tutuila.    (Seepage  102.) 

5.  Philippines.   (See  page  115.) 

6.  Porto  Rico.  This  island  is  the  most  eastern 
of  the  Greater  Antilles  of  the  West  Indian  archi- 
pelago. The  United  States  flag  was  raised  over 
the  Governor's  palace,  San  Juan,  October  18, 
1898.  The  island  is  1000  miles  from  Havana ;  is 
108  miles  long,  east  and  west,  and  averages  40 
miles  in  width,  north  and  south.  Its  area  is  about 
one-half  the  area  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey.  It 
has  137  miles  of  railway,  and  170  more  under  con- 
struction. Nearly  500  miles  of  telegraph  have 
been  built  in  the  island.  San  Juan,  the  capital, 
has  cable  connection  with  Jamaica  and  St.  Thomas. 

Porto  Rico  was  organized  as  a  civil  territory 
May  1st,  1900.     The  Governor  appointed  by  the 


200 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


President  of  the  United  States  holds  office  for  four 
years,  with  the  power  usually  given  Territorial 
governors.  In  the  government  of  the  island  he  is 
assisted  by  an  executive  council  composed  of  a  sec- 
retary, attorney-general,  treasurer,  auditor,  com- 
missioner of  the  interior,  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion, and  five  native  Porto-Ricans.  These  consti- 
tute the  upper  house  of  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
The  House  of  Deputies,  composed  of  35  members 
elected  for  two  years  constitutes  the  other  branch 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly. 

San  Juan  is  a  city  of  32,000.  Ponce,  with 
28,000,  and  Arecibo,  with  30,000  inhabitants,  are 
important  commercial  centers. 


Porto  Rico  is  extremely  fertile.  The  principal 
occupations  are  lumbering  and  agriculture.  Coffee 
constitutes  63  per  cent,  of  the  exports  from  the 
island ;  sugar,  28  per  cent. ;  while  tobacco,  honey, 
molasses,  cattle,  timber  and  hides  follow  as  im- 
portant exports,  in  order  named. 

Porto  Rico,  Hawaii  and  the  Philippines  furnish 
our  nation  a  large  amount  of  its  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical imports,  and  afford  a  good  market  for  im- 
portant agricultural  and  manufactured  exports. 
Thus  our  nation  receives  through  these  possessions 
valuable  elements  of  trade,  and  enters  the  new  cen- 
tury with  greatly  increased  commercial  resources 
and  power. 


United  States  Capitol,  Washington,  D.  C,  U.  S.  A. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


203 


STATE    AND    TERRITORIAIj    STATISTICS. 


Alabama 

Arkansas  

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas  

Kentucky  

Louisiana 

Maine  

Maryland , 

Massachusetts. . . 

Michigan , 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri  .   , 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada : . . 

New  Hampshire . 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina. . 
North  Dakota  . . . 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina. , 
South  Dakota  . . . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia. . . 

Wisconsin , 

Wyoming 


Territories. 


Alaska 

Arizona 

District  of  Columbia 

Hawaii 

Indian 

New  Mexico 

Oklahoma 


Colonial  Possessions. 

Porto  Rico 

Philippine  Islands. . . 

Tutuila,  etc 

Guam 

Wake 


United  States. 

*  Estimated. 


Capitals. 


Montgomery  .. 
Little  Rock  . . . 
Sacramento . . . 

Denver 

Hartford 

Dover 

Tallahassee  . . . 

Atlanta 

Boise 

Springfield 

Indianapolis  . . 
Des  Moines  . . . 

Topeka  

Frankfort 

Baton  Rouge . . 

Augusta 

Annapolis 

Boston 

Lansing 

St.  Paul 

Jackson 

Jefiferson  City  . 

Helena 

Lincoln  

Carson  City  . . . 

Concord  

Trenton 

Albany 

Raleigh 

Bismarck 

Columbus 

Salem 

Harrisburg  . . . 
Providence  . . . 

Columbia 

Pierre  

Nashville 

Austin 

Salt  Lake  City 
Montpelier. . . . 

Richmond 

Olympia 

Charleston 

Madison 

Cheyenne 


Largest  Cities. 


Mobile 

Little  Rock  . . . 
San  Francisco . 

Denver  

New  Haven  . . . 
Wilmington . . . 
Jacksonville. . . 

Atlanta 

Boise 

Chicago 

Indianapolis  . . 

Des  Moines 

Kansas  City. . . 

Louisville 

New  Orleans  . . 

Portland 

Baltimore 

Boston 

Detroit 

Minneapolis . . . 

Vicksburg 

St.  Louis 

Butte 

Omaha 

Reno 

Manchester . . . 

Newark 

New  York 

Wilmington . . . 

Fargo 

Cleveland 

Portland 

Philadelphia . . 
Providence  . . . 
Charleston  .. . . 

Sioux  Falls 

Memphis 

San  Antonio. . . 
Salt  Lake  City 
Burlington. . . . 

Richmond 

Seattle 

Wheeling 

Milwaukee 

Cheyenne 


Date  of  Admission 

or  Ratification  of  United 

States  Constitution. 


Dec.  14,  1819  . . 
June  15,  1836. . 
Sept.  9,  1850... 
Aug.  1,  1876... 
Jan.  9,  1788.... 
Dec.  7,  1787  . . . 
March  3,  1845.. 
Jan.  2,  1788. . . . 
July  3,  1890  . . . 
Dec.  3,  1818  . . . 
Dec.  11,  1816.. 
Dec.  28,  1846  . . 
Jan.  29,  1861... 
June  1,  1792... 
April  30,  1812. . 
March  15,  1820. 
April  28,  1788. . 
Feb.  7,  1788  ... 
Jan.  26,  1837. . . 
May  11,  1858... 
Dec.  10,  1817  . . 
Aug.  10,  1821.. 
Nov.  8,  1889  . . . 
March  1,  1867.. 
Oct.  31,1864... 
June  21,  1788. . 
Dec.  18,  1787  . . 
July  26,  1788  . . 
Nov.  21,  1789.. 
Nov.  2,  1889  . . . 
Feb.  19,  1803  . . 
Feb.  14,  1859  . . 
Dec.  12,  1787  . . 
May  29,  1790... 
May  23,  1788... 
Nov.  2,  1889... 
June  1,  1796... 
Dec.  29,  1845  . . 
Jan.  4,  1896.... 
March  4,  1791  . 
June  25,  1788.. 
Nov.  11,  1889.. 
June  20,  1863. . 
May  29,  1848. 
July  10, 1890. 


Area  of  Delaware  and  New  York  Bays  and  Part  of  the  Great  Lakes, 


Sitka 

Phoenix 

Washington. 
Honolulu  . . . 


Santa  Fe. 
Guthrie . . 


San  Juan. 
Manila. . . 


Nome 

Tucson 

Washington. . 

Honolulu 

Ardmore 

Albuquerque. 
Oklahoma 


San  Juan. 
Manila . . . 


Date  of  Organization. 


July  27,  1868  . . 
Feb.  24,  1863  . . 
March  30, 1791. 
April  30, 1900.. 
June  30,  1834.. 
Sept.  9,1850... 
May  2,  1890. . . . 


In  United  States  service  abroad 

Washington | |  July  4,  1776 


Area,  in 
Sqxuire  Miles. 


52,250 

53,850 

158,360 

103,925 

4,990 

2,050 
58,680 
59,475 
84,800 
56,650 
36,350 
56,025 
82,080 
40,400 
48,720 
33,040 
12,210 

8,315 
58,915 
83,365 
46,810 
69,415 
146,080 
77,510 
110,700 

9,305 

7,815 
49,170 
52,250 
70,795 
41,060 
96,030 
45,215 

1,250 
30,570 
77,650 
42,050 
265,780 
84,970 

9,565 
42,450 
69,180 
24,780 
56,040 
97,890 

65,897 

590,884 

113,020 

70 

6,449 

31,400 

122,580 

39,030 


3,688,110 

8,531 

*  114,410 

77 

150 

1 


3,806,279 


Population, 
1900. 


1,828,697 
1,311,564 
1,485,053 

539,700 

908,420 

184,735 

528,542 
2,216,331 

161,772 
4,821,550 
2,516.462 
2,231,853 
1,470,495 
2,147,174 
1,381,625 

694,466 
1,188,044 
2,805,346 
2,420,982 
1,751,394 
1,551,270 
3,106,665 

243,329 

1,066,300 

42,335 

411,588 
1,883,669 
7,268,894 
1,893,810 

319,146 
4,157,545 

413,536 
6,302,115 

428,556 
1,340,316 

401,570 
2,020,616 
3,048,710 

276,749 

343,641 
1,854,184 

518,103 

958,800 

2,069,042 

92,531 


63,592 
122,931 
278,718 
154,001 
392,060 
195,310 
398,331 


76,212,168 

953,243 

♦8,000,000 
6,100 
9,000 


91,219 


85,271,730 


204 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


THE    GOVEKNMENTS    OF    THE    WORLD    AND    THEIR    RULERS. 

(Authority  on  Statistics  E:dway,  1901.) 


Country. 


Population. 


Capital. 


Official  Head. 


Abyssinia 

Afghanistan 

Argentine  Republic 

Austria-Hungary 

Belgium '. 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

British  South  Africa^ 

Bulgaria 

Chile 

Chinese  Empire  ^ 

Colombia 

Costa  Rica 

Denmark 

Ecuador ". 

Egypt  ( Proper) 

France   

German  Empire^ 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland  * . . 
Commonwealth  of  Australia^ 

British  India,  etc 

Dominion  of  Canada 

Greece 

Guatemala  

Haiti 

Honduras   

Italy^   

Japanese  Empire 

Korea 

Liberia  

Luxemburg 

Mexico  

Monaco 

Montenegro 

Morocco 

Netherlands  

Nicaragua 

Oman   

Paraguay 

Persia 

Peru > 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia* 

Salvador 

Santo  Domingo 

Servia 

Siam   

Spain 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Switzerland 

Turkey»  

United  States   

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


3,500,000 
4,550,000 
4,574,000 

46,912,000 

6,815,000 

2,270,000 

14,334,000 

6,506,000 

3,311,000 

3,110,000 

330,130,000 

4,000,000 

310,000 

2,448,000 

1,272,000 

9,735,000 

38,600,000 

56,345,000 

41,606,000 

3,778,000 

299,933,000 

5,339,000 

2,434,000 

1,574,000 

1,211,000 

588,000 

32,450,000 

46,495,000 

9,670,000 

1,400,000 

218,000 

13,571,000 

15,000 

229,000 

5,000,000 

5,104,000 

500,000 

1,000,000 

636,000 

9,000,000 

4,610,000 

4,660,000 

5,913,000 

130,925,000 

916,000 

610,000 

2,535,000 

6,320,000 

18,079,000 

7,329,000 

3,314,000 

23,045,000 

85,272,000 

900,000 

2,445.000 


Addis  Abeba . . 

Kabul 

Buenos  Aires  . 

\  Vienna 

(  Budapest  .... 

Brussels 

Sucre 

Rio  de  Janeiro 


Sofia   

Santiago 

Peking 

Bogota 

San  Jose 

Copenhagen 

Quito 

Cairo 

Paris 

Berlin 

London 

Melbourne^ 

Calcutta 

Ottawa 

Athens  

New  Guatemala . 
Port  au  Prince  . . 

Tegucigalpa 

Rome  

Tokyo 

Seoul  

Monrovia 

Luxemburg 

Mexico 

Monaco 

Cetinje  . . 

Fez, 

Morocco, 
The  Hague. 

Managua 

Maskat 

Asuncion 

Teheran  

Lima 

Lisbon 

Bukharest 

St.  Petersburg  . 
San  Salvador. . . 
Santo  Domingo 

Belgrade   

Bangkok 

Madrid 

Stockholm 

Christiania  . . . 

Bern   

Constantinople . 

Washington 

Montevideo 

Caracas 


Menelek  II 

Habib  Ullah 

Julio  A.  Roca 

Franz  Joseph  I 

Leopold  II 

Jose  M.  Pando 

M.  F.  de  Campos  Salles. 

Sir  Alfred  Milner 

Ferdinand 

Federico  Errazuriz 

Kwangsu 

Jose  M.  Marroquin 

Rafael  Iglesias 

Christian  IX 

Eloy  Alfaro 

Abbas  Hilmi 

Emile  Loubet 

Wilhelm  II 

Edward  VII 

Earl  of  Hopetoun 

Lord  Curzon 

Earl  of  Minto 

Georgios  I 

Manuel  E.  Cabrera 

T.  Simon  Sam 

Terencio  Sierra 

Vittorio  Emanuele  III  . 

Mutsuhito 

YiHeui  

G.  W.  Gibson 

Adolf  of  Nassau 

Porfirio  Diaz 

Albert  

Nicholas  I 


Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz 

Wilhelmina 

J.  Santos  Zelaya. . . 
Feysal  bin  Turki  . . 
Emilio  Aceval  .... 
Muzaffar-ed-din  . . 
E.  L.  de  Romana. . 

Carlos  I 

Carol  I 

Nicholas  II 

Tomas  Regalado  . . 
Juan  I.  Jiminez  . . . 

Alexander  I 

Chulalongkorn  I. . . 
Maria  Christina  . . . 


Oscar  II 

Joseph  Zemp , 

Abdul-Hamid  II  ... . 
Theodore  Roosevelt . 
Juan  L.  Onestas  — 
Cipriano  Castro 


King. 

Ameer. 

President. 

Emperor. 

King. 

President. 

President. 

High  Commissioner. 

Prince. 

President. 

Emperor. 

President. 

President. 

King. 

President. 

Khedive. 

President. 

Emperor. 

King. 

Governor-General. 

Governor-General. 

Governor-General . 

King. 

President. 

President. 

President. 

King. 

Mikado. 

Emperor. 

President. 

Grand  Duke. 

President. 

Prince. 

Prince. 

Sultan. 

Queen. 

President. 

Sultan. 

President. 

Shah. 

President. 

King. 

King. 

Emperor. 

President. 

President. 

King. 

King. 

Queen  Regent. 

King. 

President. 

Sultan. 

President. 

President. 

President. 


ilncludes  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Basutoland,  Natal,  Rhodesia,  Bechuana- 
land  Protectorate,  Central  Africa  Protectorate,  Orange  Elver  Colony,  and 
Transvaal  Colony. 

"Includes  China  proper,  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Chinese  Turkestan,  and 
Tibet. 

"Includes  the  confederation  of  Qerman  States,  and  Principalities  under 
the  Oonstltutlon  of  the  Empire. 


*  Includes  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Isle  of  Man,  and  Channel 
Islands. 

'^  Includes  the  former  Australian  Colonies  and  Tasmania. 

«  The  temporary  capital  of  The  Australian  Federation,  pending  the  lo- 
cation of  a  federal  district  and  building  of  a  capital  city. 

'Includes  Italy  proper,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia. 

8 Includes  Russia  In  Kiirope  and  all  the  Russian  possessions  in  Asia. 

"Includes  Turkey  In  Europe,  in  Asia,  and  in  Africa. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


206 


fX. 


Salmon-Canning  in  Alaska. 


u:n^ited  states  mail  connections  with  the  commercial 

WORLD. 


The  Universal  Postal  Union  was  formed  in 
1874.  For  two  cents  an  ounce  a  letter  can  be 
sent  to  any  postoffice  in  Canada,  Mexico,  and 
the  United  States.  For  five  cents  an  ounce  or 
fraction  thereof,  a  letter  can  be  sent  to  any  nation 
in  the  Postal  Union. 

The  Superintendent  of  Foreign  Mails  dispatches 
the  mails  for  foreign  countries  by  the  fastest 
steamers.  The  principal  mail  steamer  lines  con- 
necting our  leading  ports  with  the  commercial 
world  are  here  named,  both  our  nation's  port  and 
the   port   of   destination    of   mail    steamer   being 

given. 

Transatlantic   Mails. 

Name  of  Line.  Forts  of  Destination. 

American. — Xew  York  to  Southampton. 
American. — Philadelphia   to    Liverpool. 
Amsinck. — IsTew  York  to  Fayal.^ 
Anchor. — ISTew  York  to  Glasgow. 

5.  Cunard. — ^ew  York  to  Queenstown. 

6.  Cunard. — Boston  to  Liverpool. 


'  Carries  mall  to  Azores  Islands. 


7.  l)ominion. — Boston  to  Liverpool. 

8.  General  Transatlantic. — New  York  to  Havre. 

9.  Hamburg-American. — ^ew  York  to  Hamburg. 

10.  Holland- American. — New  York  to  Rotterdam. 

11.  Italian  Royal  Mail. — New  York  to  Naples. 

12.  La  Valoce. — New  York  to  Naples. 

13.  North  German  Lloyd. — New  York  to  Bremen. 

14.  Prince. — New  York  to  Punta  Delgada.^ 

15.  Red  Star. — New  York  to  Antwerp. 

16.  Red  Star. — Philadelphia  to  Antwerp. 

17.  Thingvalla. — New  York  to  Copenhagen. 

18.  White  Star. — New  York  to  Queenstown. 

Canada   and   Newfoundland. 

Name  of  Line.  Ports  of  Destination. 

1.  Allan. — Philadelphia  to  St.  Johns. 

2.  Canada,  Atlantic  and  Plant  S.  S.  Co.— Boston 

to  Halifax. 

3.  Pacific  Coast  S.   S.   Co. — San  Francisco  to 

Victoria. 

4.  Red  Cross. — New  York  to  St.  Johns. 


^  Carries  mall  to  Azores  Islands. 


206 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


West   Indies,  Mexico,   Central   and   Soutli 
America. 

Name  of  Line.  Port  of  Destination. 

1.  Atlas. — New    York    to    Kingston,    Port    au 

Prince,  etc. 

2.  Atlantic  and  Mexican  Gulf  S.  S.  Co. — Mobile 

to  Progresso. 

3.  Bahama  S.  S.  Co. — New  York  to  Nassau. 

4.  Cameron. — New  York  to  Port  au  Prince. 

5.  Clyde. — New  York  to  San  Domingo. 

6.  Lamport  &  Holt. — New  York  to  Rio  Janeiro. 
Y.  Lamport  &  Holt. — New  York  to  Buenos  Ajres. 

8.  Mexican  International  S.  S.  Co. — San  Diego 

to  La  Ensenada. 

9.  Morgan. — New  Orleans  to  Havana. 

10.  Munson. — New  York  to  Matanzas. 

11.  New  York  and  Cuba  Mail. — New  York  to 

Havana. 

12.  New  York  and   Cuba  Mail. — New  York  to 

South  Cuban  Ports. 

13.  New  York  and   Cuba   Mail. — New  York  to 

Vera  Cruz  and  Tampico. 

14.  New  York  and  Porto  Rico. — New  York  to 

San  Juan. 

15.  Pacific    Mail. — San    Francisco    to    Mexican 

Ports. 

16.  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Co. — San  Francisco 

to  South  American  Ports. 

17.  Panama  R.  R.  Co.'s  S.  S.  Line.— New  York 

to  Colon. 

18.  Prince. — New  York  to  Montevideo. 

19.  Quebec  S.  S.  Co. — New  York  to  St.  Thomas, 

Barbadoes  and  Georgetown. 


20.  Red  Cross. — New  York  to  Para  and  Manaos. 

21.  Red  D. — New  York  to  San  Juan  and  Curagao. 

22.  Red  D. — New  York  to  Maracaibo. 

23.  Royal  Dutch  West  Indian  Mail. — New  York' 

to  Port  au  Prince,  Trinidad,  Georgetown. 

24.  South  American   S.    S.   Co.  —  San  Francisco, 

Central  and  South  American  Ports. 

25.  Trinidad. — New  York  to  Grenada  and  Trini- 

dad. 

26.  United   Fruit  Co. — New   Orleans  to  Belize, 

Port  Limon  and  Belize. 

27.  United  Fruit  Co. — Mobile  to  Bocas  del  Toro. 

28.  United  Fruit  Co. — Philadelphia  to  Port  An- 

tonio. 

Transpacific   Mail. 

^ome  of  Line.  Ports  of  Destination. 

1.  Canadian  Pacific  S.  S.  Co. — Victoria  to  Syd- 

ney. 

2.  Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha. — Seattle  to  Yokohama.^ 

3.  Northern  Pacific  S.  S.  Co. — Tacoma  to  Yoko- 

hama and  Hong  Kong.^ 

4.  Oceanic  S.  S.  Co. — San  Francisco  to  Sydney. 

5.  Occidental  and  Oriental  S.  S.  Co. — San  Fran- 

cisco to  Shanghai.^ 

6.  Oriental  S.  S.  Co. — San  Francisco  to  Hong 

Kong  and  Kobe. 

7.  Pacific  Mail. — San  Francisco  to  Shanghai.^ 

Study  steamer  routes  indicated  on  the  Commercial 
Map  of  the  World.  These  routes  are  given  in  nautical, 
not  statute,  miles. 


1  From  Yokohama  a  line  runs  to  Australian  ports. 

2  This  line  carries  mall  to  Hawaii,  TutuUa,  and  Auckland. 

3  Carries  mail  to  Honolulu,  Yokohama,  and  Hong  Kong. 
■*  Carries  mall  to  Yokohama  and  Nagasaki. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


207 


THE  WEATHER  BUREAU. 


When  tie  English  settlement  was  established  at 
eTamestown,  Virginia,  the  properties  of  the  air  had 
not  been  revealed  to  science,  and  no  instrument  had 
been  devised  to  measure  its  phenomena. 

Twentj-three  years  after  the  Pilgrims  landed 
on  Plymouth  Kock,  Torricelli  brought  forth  his 
barometer.  His  great  teacher,  Galileo,  gave  to 
the  world  the  principle  of  the  thermometer. 

One  hundred  years  afterward,  our  own  philoso- 
pher, Benjamin  Franklin,  developed  the  philosophy 
of  storms.  His  theory  of  rotary  storms  traveling 
in  a  northeasterly  direction  was  fully  established 
by  the  data  gathered  by  Redfield,  Espy,  Maury, 
Loomis  and  Abbe  in  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century. 

The  first  series  of  weather  observations  after 
Franklin  were  conducted  by  James  Madison  and 
Thomas  Jeiferson.  These  observations  were  be- 
gun in  1771.  Madison  was  stationed  at  Williams- 
burg, the  colonial  capital  of  Virginia,  Jefferson  at 
Monticello,  120  miles  west  of  the^  capital  city. 
These  two  friends,  by  comparing  observations, 
found  that  barometric  and  thermometric  changes 
usually  occurred  at  Monticello  four  to  five  hours 
before  they  did  at  Williamsburg.  These  two 
students  of  nature  kept  up  their  study  of  atmos- 
pheric changes  through  many  years. 

While  in  Philadelphia,  in  July,  1776,  Jefferson 
found  time  to  take  several  readings  each  day.  On 
that  first  memorable  Fourth  of  July  Jefferson 
made  the  following  readings :  Thermometer  6  a.  m., 
68°;  9  a.m.,  721°;  i  p.  j^j,^  76°;  9  p.m.,  73^°. 
This  shows  that  July  day  to  have  been  a  cool  one, 
although  most  historians  affirm  otherwise. 

A  few  years  after  the  opening  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary War  the  British  ransacked  Madison's  home, 
and  carried  off  his  barometer. 

Prof.  Joseph  Henry,  secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  in  1855   constructed   a   daily 


weather  map  from  observations  collected  by  tele- 
graph. With  a  large  wall  map  he  demonstrated  the 
feasibility  of  establishing  a  Government  weather 
service.  This  man's  work  largely  determined  the 
following  commercial  nations  to  use  this  service  as 
an  aid  to  their  commerce  and  various  industries: 
Holland  established  a  weather  service  with  tele- 
graphic reports  and  forecasts  in  1860,  England  in 
1861,  France  in  1863,  and  the  United  States  in 
1870.  To-day  most  of  the  nations  having  an  ex- 
tensive commerce  have  established  a  government 
weather  service. 

Our  own  weather  service  has  trained  a  corps 
of  expert  weather  forecasters,  who  present  a  pic- 
ture of  atmospheric  conditions  over  an  area  ex- 
tending from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  and  from 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  on  the  south  to  the  north- 
ern limit  of  Canadian  settlements.  The  service 
presents,  every  twelve  hours,  a  graphic  picture  of 
the  hurricanes,  cold  waves,  hot  waves,  rain-  or 
snow-storms  over  vast  areas.  !N^owhere  else  can 
meteorologists  find  such  an  opportunity  to  study 
storms  and  atmospheric  changes. 

Secretary  Wilson,  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, has  arranged  with  Europe  and  the  Azores 
Islands  so  that  meteorological  reports  of  the  east 
Atlantic  and  adjacent  coasts  can  be  received  at 
our  Weather  Bureau  headquarters  in  Washington. 
This  enables  our  own  Weather  Bureau  to  forecast 
wind  direction  and  wind  force  for  transatlantic 
steamers  for  a  period  of  three  days  out  from  each 
continent.  It  is  estimated  that  5628  transatlantic 
steamers  and  5842  transatlantic  sailing-vessels 
enter  and  leave  ports  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  each 
year.  Their  cargoes  are  estimated  to  be  worth  at 
least  a  billion  and  a  half  of  dollars.  Outside  of 
this  enumeration  is  our  coast  traffic.  On  the  At- 
lantic coast,  from  Maine  to  Florida,  in  a  single 
year  4000  steamers  and  17,000  sailing-vessels  clear 


208 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


port,  with  cargoes  worth  seven  millions  oi  dollars. 
Add  to  these  the  vast  marine  interests  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  Gulf  and  Pacific  coast  of  our  nation,  and  we 
can  in  a  measure  comprehend  the  value  of  marine 
property  that  our  Weather  Bureau  aims  to  protect 
by  giving  warning  of  approaching  storms. 

The  service  seeks  to  give  warnings  from  twelve 
to  sixteen  hours  in  advance  of  a  storm,  by  tele 
graph,  messenger  or  warning  light  and  flags,  di- 
rectly to  the  masters  of  vessels.  The  Galveston 
hurricane  was  detected  at  the  time  of  its  inception, 
September  1,  1900,  in  the  ocean  south  of  Porto 
Eico,  and  such  full  information  of  its  progress  was 
given  out  by  the  Weather  Bureau  that  there  was 
little  or  no  loss  of  life  and  property  in  the  Gulf, 
and  when  the  storm  passed  over  the  region  of  the 
Great  Lakes  the  warnings  had  been  so  general  that 
shipping  was  kept  in  port  and  not  a  life  was  lost. 

Every  day  in  our  ports,  float  more  than  forty 
million  dollars'  worth  of  craft.  In  every  port 
there  is  stationed  either  a  meteorological  observa- 
tory or  a  storm-warning  display  near,  to  display 
danger  lights  on  storm-warning  towers  by  night 
and  danger  flags  by  day,  and  to  distribute  storm- 
•warning  messages  among  vessel-masters.  From  the 
central  office  at  Washington  a  storm  warning  can 
be  dictated,  and  within  an  hour  this  warning  will 
be  in  the  hands  of  every  vessel-master  who  desires 
it,  in  every  port  of  commercial  size  in  our  nation. 

The  benefit  of  the  Weather  Bureau  to  property- 
owners  inland  is  even  greater  than  to  owners  of 
marine  property.  The  cold  wave  of  January  1, 
1898,  that  swept  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  east- 
ward to  the  coast,  was  predicted  by  the  Weather 
Bureau  in  sufficient  time  to  save  much  property. 
The  estimates  secured  from  100  commercial  centers 
show  that  property  valued  at  $3,400,000  in  these 
centers  was  saved  as  a  direct  result  of  these  pre- 
dictions. By  means  of  telegraphic  circuits,  re- 
ports are  transmitted  with  remarkable  rapidity. 

The  Bureau  has  20,0  regular  meteorological  sta- 
tions, established  for  geographical  advantages  in 


taking  observations,  each  one  in  charge  of  a  skilled 
and  well-trained  observer.  This  Bureau  has  315 
paid  temperature  and  rainfall  reporters,  who  daily 
telegraph  their  data  from  all  parts  of  our  nation. 
Besides  these,  there  are  3000  voluntary  observers, 
equipped  with  standard  thermometers  and  rain- 
gauges,  who  daily  take  weather  observations  and 
give  weekly  crop  reports  to  State  central  offices ; 
14,000  other  persons  report  weekly,  to  the  climate 
and  crop  centers,  the  crop  conditions  in  their  re- 
spective localities.  Besides  these  voluntary  work- 
ers this  Bureau  employs  200  skilled  employes  in 
the  central  office  at  Washington,  and  1200  skill- 
fully trained  officials  in  the  field. 

The  machinery  of  reports  has  been  so  perfected 
that  within  thirt}'  minutes  after  the  station  observer 
in  the  most  remote  telegraph  circuit  has  filed  hi« 
observation,  all  observations  have  been  received  at 
the  central  office. 

Synoptic  charts  are  made  from  the  daily  read- 
ings made  at  8  a.  m.  and  8  p.  m.  (75th  meridian 
time).  These  observations  consist  of  readings  of 
the  barometer,  thermometer,  direction  and  velocity 
of  the  wind,  state  of  the  weather,  amount,  kind  and 
direction  of  clouds,  and  amount  of  rain  or  snow. 

The  weather  maps  are  made  at  Washington, 
Toronto  (Canada),  and  many  of  the  larger  sta- 
tions selected  for  their  location,  as  Kansas  City, 
Denver,  and  San  Francisco.  Solid  lines,  called 
isobars,  pass  through  points  in  the  weather  map 
having  the  same  atmospheric  pressure.  Dotted 
lines,  called  isotherms,  pass  through  points  having 
the  same  temperature.  These  lines  are  drawn  for 
every  ten  degrees.  Heavy  dotted  lines  are  some- 
times shown  inclosing  areas  where  a  decided  change 
in  temperature  has  occurred  within  the  last  twenty- 
four  hours. 

The  general  movement  of  storms  in  the  United 
States  is  from  west  to  east,  similar  to  a  series  of 
atmospheric  waves.  The  crests  are  designated  in 
the  weather  maps  as  "  highs  "  and  the  depressions 
or  troughs  as  "  lows."     These  alternating  highs 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


209 


^^wWe^a^kt'^. 


Ve.'w5^<t't2i^\xvc 


Oo\)«N\\,eas\,eA,;yY^v^^s, 


>S\o>twvw\)^xvtiX. 


VkSiLVCNw  est  Sxx.C»K.  WA.'^m  0>tSvs.(5^,- 


^o>aW«>5l<w\iyLv\\A.s. 


Vja^s\*Ay\v\\v]fckS. 


'\^<i\s'i^e^5W>6\y^0£\,xvS^1 


oovjSw«(<istfctW  vCvcv^s, 


VC<i^\ev\^\i\x,^», 


/uxuc^xve  0V^"sX» 


United  States  Weather  and  Storm  Signal  Flags. 


210 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


and  lows  have  an  average  easterly  movement  of 
600  miles  per  day.  An  absence  of  decided  waves 
of  high  or  of  low  pressure  indicates  a  continuance 
of  existing  weather,  which  will  last  till  later  maps 
show  a  change,  usually  first  appearing  in  the  west. 

Symbols  indicate  the  state  of  the  weather  as  the 
accompanying  map  shows.  These  maps  are  sent  to 
every  postoiSce  every  day,  and  to  2000  weekly, 
434  semi-weekly,  14,734  papers  in  the  land. 
All  schools  and  private  citizens  wdio  desire  these 
maps  can  obtain  them  free  of  charge  upon  appli- 
cation. 

The  efficiency  of  the  flood-warning  branch  of  the 
Weather  Bureau  Service  is  comprehended  by  the 
following  incident :  During  the  time  of  the  flood 
of  1897  the  warnings  sent  out  enabled  owners  to 
save  fifteen  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  live  stock 
and  movable  property;  The  flood-warning  service 
has  fifteen  river  centers,  with  a  special  Texas  dis- 
trict that  is  now  being  added. 


The  rural  delivery  of  the  Postal  Department 
has  enabled  the  Weather  Bureau  to  place  its  daily 
forecasts  in  the  hands  of  thousands  of  agricul- 
turists. The  latest  forecast  is  printed  on  slips  of 
paper,  and  each  rural  carrier  provided  with  enough 
to  supply  each  house  on  his  route. 

The  Weather  Bureau  costs  our  Government  at 
the  present  time  one  million  dollars  annually. 
Conservative  exjDerts  estimate  that  this  Weather 
Bureau  service  is  worth  fully  twenty  million  dol- 
lars to  the  agricultural,  commercial  and  general 
industrial  interests  of  the  United  States.  As  fore- 
casters study  the  physical  laws  governing  atmos- 
pheric changes,  their  predictions  become  more  ac- 
curate and  render  the  service  still  more  efficient. 
For  this  reason  the  merit  system  prevails  in  the 
employment  and  retention  of  employes  in  this 
service.  Most  of  the  forecasters  at  the  present 
time  are  skilled  meteorologists,  with  twenty  years 
of  experience  in  the  field. 


STANDARD    TIME. 


What  is  known  as  "  Standard  Time  "  was  adop- 
ted by  all  the  principal  railroads  of  the  United 
States  at  12  o'clock,  noon,  on  November  18,  1883. 
The  system  divides  the  nation  into  five  longitu- 
dinal belts,  and  fixes  a  meridian  of  time  for  each 
belt.  These  meridians  are  fifteen  degrees  of  longi- 
tude apart.  Eastern  Maine,  Xew  Brunswick  and 
N^ova  Scotia  use  the  60th  meridian;  Quebec,  On- 
tario, ^ew  England,  the  Middle  States,  Virginia 
and  the  Carolinas  use  the  75th  meridian,  which 
is  that  of  Philadelphia;  the  States  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  Alabama,  Georgia  and  Florida,  and 
westward,  including  Texas,  Kansas,  and  the  larger 
part  of  Nebraska  and  Dakota,  use  the  90th  merid- 
ian, which  is  that  of  St.  Louis.  The  Territories 
to  the  western  border  of  Arizona  and  Montana  go 
by  the  time  of  the  105th  meridian,  which  is  that 


of  Denver;  and  the  Pacific  States  use  the  120th 
meridian  to  mark  Pacific.  The  time  between 
the  various  meridians  is  known  as  Intercolonial, 
Eastern,  Central,  Mountain  and  Pacific  time,  re- 
spectively. Fifteen  degrees  equal  one  hour  of 
time,  and  the  standard  meridians  control  the  time 
for  seven  and  one-half  degrees  in  each  direction. 
The  traveler  then  makes  an  hour's  change  in  his 
watch  just  half-way  between  each  meridian,  turn- 
ing forward  if  traveling  east  and  backward  if 
traveling  west  across  the  continent. 

Professor  Abbe,  of  the  U.  S.  Signal  Bureau, 
demonstrated  the  practical  value  of  this  system  of 
reckoning  time,  and  was  the  first  one  to  urge  its 

adoption. 

International   Date   Line. 

Explained  on  Page  103,  Part  II. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


211 


THE    COINS    or    COMMERCIAL    REALMS. 


Money  is  a  medium  of  exchange,  and  as  such  is 
the  commercial  standard  of  values.  The  kind  of 
money  used  by  different  countries  is  an  index  to 
their  civilization. 

The  following  stages  show  the  development  of 
commercial  units  of  value: 

I.  Pastoral  Stage. 

Sheep  and  Cattle. — This  goes  back  to  patri- 
archal times,  when  a  man's  wealth  was  estimated 
by  his  flocks  and  herds.  The  words,  fee,  pecuniary, 
capital,  in  the  English,  and  similar  words  in  nearly 
every  other  general  language,  testify  to  the  early 
and  universal  use  of  sheep  and  cattle  as  money. 

II.  Hunting  and  Fishing  Stage. 

1.  Beaver-skins. 

2.  Fish-hooks. 

3.  Wampum. 

The  first  became  a  unit  of  value  when  Europeans 
traded  with  Indians  in  "  trapping "  days,  and  the 
third  was  official  money  between  Indians  and  white 
settlers  of  Xew  England  and  Xew  Amsterdam  for 
many  decades.  Wampum  consists  of  white  beads 
made  from  a  periwinkle-shell,  or  black  beads  cut 
from  clam-shells,  arranged  in  strings  or  belts. 
When  the  shrewd  Yankee  began  imitating  with 
glass  or  wooden  beads,  wampum  lost  its  intrinsic 
worth  as  money.  Shells  are  still  used  as  money 
on  some  tropical  coasts. 

Fish-hooks  for  many  decades  formed  the  coin  of 
trade  on  the  northern  shores  of  the  Indian  ocean. 
!N^ow,  from  Persia  to  Ceylon,  the  native  fisher- 
women  count  their  wealth  by  pieces  of  bent  wire 
used  as  liooks. 

III.  The  Ageicultural  Stage. 

1.  Dried  Codfish. 

2.  Cereals. 

3.  Tobacco. 

For  some  time  in  early  days  of  colonization  dried 


codfish  w'as  the  unit  of  barter  in  Newfoundland. 
For  more  than  twenty  centuries,  wheat,  oats  and 
barley  have  been  standard  measures  of  value  in 
remote  northern  regions  of  Europe.  Maize  or  In- 
dian corn  was  once  the  currency  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  as  well  as  of  some  of  the  English 
colonies  of  Xorth  America.  Tobacco  passed  cur- 
rent in  Virginia  in  colonial  days,  and  was  legal 
tender  in  Maryland  as  late  as  1732. 

IV.  Manufacturing  Stage. 

1.  Chinese  Hoe. 

2.  Hand-made  Xails. 

In  remote  times  the  hoe  was  a  standard  unit  of 
value  in  China,  and  later  gave  place  to  miniature 
hoes  that  became  true  money.  A  similar  unit  is  in 
use  to-day  in  Anam. 

Some  Scotch  villages  in  the  Middle  Ages  used 
hand-made  nails  to  measure  values. 

V.  Commercial  Stage. 

1.  Bronze  pieces. 

2.  Blacksmith  Iron. 

3.  Chinese  "  Cash." 

4.  Copper  Coin. 

The  bronze  bars  and  stamped  bronze  pieces  were 
coins  used  in  Greece  and  Italy  in  ancient  times, 
and  mark  the  transition  from  cattle  money  to 
stamped  metallic  money. 

Iron  was  used  in  Sparta  and  other  parts  of  the 
ancient  world,  and  iron  ready  for  the  blacksmith  is 
now  used  in  various  places  on  the  West-African 
coast. 

The  Chinese  have  for  their  native  coin  and  prin- 
cipal legal  teuder  round  disks  of  brass  with  a 
square  hole  in  the  center.  This  "  cash  "  is  used  in 
all  small  accounts,  and  is  also  called  "  sapeks " 
or"le.» 

The  copper  or  brass  coin  known  as  the  "  as " 
was  used  in  Italy  until  200,  A.  D. 


212 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


VI.  Inteknational  Trade. 

1.  Silver. 

2.  Gold. 

3.  Copper. 

Eeal  coinage  began  when  governments  guaran- 
teed weight  and  fineness  with  a  government  official 
stamp.  One  of  the  earliest  silver  coins  was  a 
Romano-Campanian  coin,  struck  off  at  Rome, 
about  300  B.  C. 

Gold  was  first  coined  at  Rome,  about  206  B.  C. 

The  florin,  minted  at  Florence  in  the  fourteenth 
century  (A.  D.)  was  the  first  regular  coin  of  trade 
in  western  Europe.  The  English  pound  sterling 
has  now  become  the  recognized  unit  of  value  in 
commerce  for  international  trade. 

The  following  table  gives  the  standard  money 
of  the  principal  commercial  countries  according 
to  the  official  valuations  received  at  the  United 
States  Treasury. 

VALUE   OF  FOREIGlSr  COINS  AND  CURRENCIES. 
( From  United  States  consular  reports.) 


Argentine  Republic 

Austria 

Belgium 

Brazil 

British  North 

America  * 

British  Honduras. . 

Chile 

Costa  Rica 

Cuba 

Denmark 

Ecuador 

Egypt 

Finland 

France  

Germany 

Great  Britain 

Greece 

Haiti 


standard. 


Gdld  and  silver, 

Gold 

Gold  and  silver, 
Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold  and  silver. 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold  and  silver. 
Gold 

Gold 

Gold  and  silver, 
Gold  and  silver, 


Monetary 
Unit. 


Peso  .  . 
Crown 
Franc . 
Milreis 

Dollar. 
Dollar. 
Peso  . . 
Colon  . 
Peso  . . 
Crown 
Sucre  . 
Pound 

( 100  plasters) 

Mark 

Franc . . . 
Mark .... 
Pound 

sterling 
Drachma 
Gourde. . 


Value 

in  U.  S. 

Gold. 


$0,965 

.203 
.193 
.546 

1.00 

1.00 
.865 
.465 
.926 
.268 
.487 

4.943 

.193 
.193 
.238 

4.866J 

.193 
.963 


*  Except  Newfoundland. 


VALUE  OF  FOEEIGN  COINS  AND  CURRENCIES.— Continukd. 


India 

Italy 

Japan 

Liberia  

Netherlands 

Newfoundland 

Peru 

Portugal 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Switzerland 

Turkey 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


Gold 

Gold  and  silver, 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold  and  silver. 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold  and  silver. 

Gold 

Gold  and  silver. 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold  and  silver, 


Monetary 
Unit. 


Rupee. 

Lira.. . 

Yen... 

Dollar. 

Florin. 

Dollar. 

Sol..., 

Milreis 

Ruble. 

Peseta 

Crown 

Franc . 

Piaster 

Peso  . . 

Bolivar, 


Value 

in  U.  S. 

Gold. 


.324 
.193 

.498 

1.00 
.402 

1.014 
.487 

1.08 
.515 
.193 
.268 
.193 
.044 

1.034 
.193 


COUNTRIES  WITH  FLUCTUATING  CURRENCIES. 


Countries. 

standard. 

Monetary  Unit. 

Bolivia 

Silver 

Silver 

Silver 

Silver 

Silver 

Silver 

Boliviano 

Peso 

$0,468 

Central  America. . . 

.465 

China 

Haikwantael. . . 
Peso 

.771 

Colombia 

.468 

Mexico 

Dollar 

.509 

Persia 

Kran 

.086 

The  money  coinage  of  the  world  for  the  year 
1900,  the  Director  of  the  United  States  Mint 
gives  as  follows: 

Gold  (in  U.  S.  dollars),  $355,000,000. 

Silver  (in  U.  S.  dollars),  $177,000,000. 

U.  S.  coinage :  gold,  $99,000,000 ;  silver,  $30,- 
350,000;   minor  coins,  $1,482,000. 

The  money  of  the  United  States  consists  of 
gold  coin,  standard  silver  dollars,  subsidiary  sil- 
ver, nickel  coins,  gold  certificates,  silver  certificates. 
Treasury  notes  (act  of  July  14,  1890),  U.  S.  notes, 
currency  certificates  (act  of  June  8,  1872),  and 
l^ational  Bank  notes. 

The  monetary  unit  of  our  nation  is  the  dollar. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


213 


THE    FIVES    OF    COMMERCE. 


Here  are  given  the  most  important  commercial  nations  or  countries  of  each  of  the  grand  divisions. 
Items  under  A  indicate  the  five  most  important  exports,  under  B,  the  five  most  important  imports, 
and  nations  named  under  C  indicate  the  national  counters  at  which  the  most  of  this  nation's  trading 
is  done. 


I. 

Europe. 

A. 

B. 

c. 

AUSTRIA- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Sugar. 

Timber  and  wood. 

Live  animals. 

Cereals. 

Leather  goods. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Cotton  and  wool  fibers. 

Yarn. 

Cloth. 

Coffee. 

W^heat  products. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Germany. 

Great  Britain. 

Italy. 

United  States. 

Switzerland. 

BELGIUM*— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

5. 

Yarns    (linen,  wool,  etc.). 

Coal,  coke,  etc. 

Machinery. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Glass. 

1. 
2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 

Cereals. 
Textile  fibers. 
Chemicals  and  drugs. 
Timbers  and  resins. 
Animal  products. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

France.    ■ 
Great  Britain. 
Holland. 
United  States. 
Germany. 

DENMARK- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Butter. 

Eggs. 

Meats. 

Live  animals. 

Colonial  goods. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Cereals. 
Textile  fabrics, 
^lachinery. 
Wood  and  timber. 
Coal. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Sweden. 
Russia. 

United   States. 
Great   Britain. 
Germany. 

FRANCE— 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Wine. 

Alimentary  pastes  (macaroni, 

vermicelli,  etc.). 
Sugar. 
Leather  goods. 

1. 
2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 

Cereals. 

Raw  wool,  silk,  and  cotton. 

Timber  and  wood. 

Coal,  coke,  etc. 

Coffee. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Great  Britain. 
Belgium. 
Germany. 
United  States. 
Algeria. 

GERMANY- 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Metal,   wooden,  leather,   and 

paper  wares. 
Chemicals  and  drugs. 
Stone,  clay,  and  glassware. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Breadstuffs. 
Potatoes. 
Textile  fibers. 
Petroleum. 
Animal  products. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Great  Britain. 
United  States. 
Austria. 
Russia. 
France. 

GREAT 

BRITAIN- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

Coal,  coke,  etc. 

Chemicals. 

Copper. 

1. 
2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 

Breadstuffs. 
Textile  fibers. 
Animal  products. 
Wood  and  timber. 
Butter  and  oleomargarine. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

United  States. 

France. 

India. 

Germany. 

Australasia. 

GREECE— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Currants   (dried).      • 

Ores. 

Olive  oil. 

Wines. 

Figs. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Cereals. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Coal. 

Wood  and  timber. 

Live  stock. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Great  Britain. 

Russia. 

Austria. 

France. 

Turkey  and  Egypt. 

ITALY- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Raw  silk  and  silk  goods. 

Wine. 

Olive  oil. 

Sulphur. 

Eggs. 

1. 
2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 

Wheat. 

Raw  cotton  and  wool. 

Coal. 

Machinery. 

Lumber. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4.' 
5. 

Great  Britain. 

Germany. 

France. 

Austria. 

Switzerland. 

NETHER- 
LANDS— 

1. 
2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 

Butter  and  cheese. 

Vegetables. 

Sugar. 

Drugs. 

Fish. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Cereals  and  flour. 

Lumber. 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

Textile  fibers. 

East  India  fruits  and  spices. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 

Prussia. 

Great  Britain. 

Belgium. 

Java. 

United  States. 

*  Belgium  supplies  most  of  the  world  with  Its  Ivory. 


214 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


V 


I. 

ISiuro-pe.— Continued. 

/ 

A. 

B. 

C. 

PORTUGAL— 

1. 

Wine. 

1. 

Wheat. 

1. 

Great  Britain. 

2. 

Cork. 

2. 

Textile  fibers  and  fabrics. 

2. 

Germany. 

3. 

Fish. 

3. 

Sugar. 

3. 

United  States. 

4. 

Copper. 

4. 

Coal. 

4. 

Brazil. 

/ 

5. 

Subtropical  fruits. 

5. 

Iron. 

5. 

Spain. 

EUSSIA— 

1. 

Wheat  and  flour. 

1. 

Textile  fibers. 

1. 

Germany. 

2. 

Timber  and  wooden  goods. 

2. 

Machinery. 

2. 

Great  Britain. 

3. 

Flax  fiber. 

3. 

Tea. 

3. 

France. 

4. 

Leather  goods  and  furs. 

4. 

Coal,  coke,  etc. 

4. 

Holland. 

r 

5. 

Dairy  produce  and  eggs. 

5. 

Chemicals. 

5. 

Austria. 

SPAIN— 

L 

Wine. 

1. 

Cotton  and   cotton  manufac- 

1. 

France. 

2. 

Cork. 

tures. 

2. 

Great  Britain. 

3. 

Oranges,  olives  and  olive  oil. 

2. 

Machinery. 

3. 

United   States. 

4. 

Minerals. 

3. 

Live  animals  and  meats. 

4. 

Portugal. 

f 

5. 

Raw  silk. 

4. 
5. 

Timber  and  wood. 
Woolen  and  silk  goods. 

5. 

Germany. 

SWEDEN  AND 

1. 

Lumber   and   wood  manufac- 

1. 

Breadstuff's. 

1. 

Great   Britain. 

NORWAY— 

tures.* 

2. 

Textile  fibers  and  fabrics. 

2. 

Germany. 

> 

2. 

Fish. 

3. 

Machinery. 

3. 

Denmark. 

3. 

Swedish  ores. 

4. 

JMetals. 

4. 

Russia. 

4. 

Animal  products  ( malty  food ) 

.  5. 

Vegetable  products. 

5. 

France. 

/ 

5. 

Paper    and    paper    manufac- 
tures. 

SWITZER- 

L 

Silk  and  cotton  fabrics. 

1. 

Breadstuffs. 

1. 

Great  Britain. 

LAND— 

2. 

Clocks  and  watches. 

2. 

Raw  silk  and  cotton. 

2. 

Germany. 

3. 

Colors. 

3. 

Metals     and     mineral     sub- 

3. 

Denmark. 

.    4. 

Machinery. 

stances. 

4. 

Russia. 

/ 

5. 

Condensed  milk. 

4. 
5. 

Coal,  coke,  etc. 

Leather  and  leather  goods. 

5. 

France. 

TURKEY— 

1. 

Wine. 

1. 

Textile  fabrics. 

1. 

Great  Britain. 

2. 

Fruits. 

2. 

Sugar. 

2. 

Austria. 

3. 

Rugs  and  carpets. 

3. 

Breadstuffs. 

3. 

France. 

4. 

Tobacco. 

4. 

CofTee. 

4. 

Russia. 

5. 

Sponges  and  pearls. 

5. 

Petroleum. 

5. 

Italy. 

*  Sweden  Is  the  largest  lumber-exporting  country  in  Europe.    It  Is  also  a  match  factory  for  the  world. 


II.    North   America. 


UNITED 
STATES- 


CANADA- 


REPUBLICS 
OF  CENTRAL 
AMERICA— 


A. 

1.  Breadstuffs. 

2.  Cotton. 

3.  Meat  and  dairy  products. 

4.  Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

5.  Petroleum. 

1.  Wood  and  manufactures. 

2.  Wheat  and  flour. 

3.  Cheese. 

4.  Fish. 

5.  Gold. 

1.  Coffee. 

2.  Bananas. 

3.  Hides  and  skins. 

4.  Cedar  and  dyewoods. 

5.  Caoutchovie. 


B. 

1.  Sugar.  • 

2.  Hides  and  skins. 

3.  Chemicals,  drugs  and  dyes. 

4.  Coffee. 

5.  Raw  silk. 

1.  Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

2.  Coal  and  coke. 

3.  Woolen  goods. 

4.  Sugar. 

5.  Cottons. 

1.  Cotton  goods. 

2.  Hardware. 

3.  Flour. 

4.  General   manufactures. 

5.  Tinware. 


C. 

Great  Britain. 

Germany. 

France. 

Canada. 

Netherlands. 

Great  Britain. 
United  States. 
Germany. 
France. 
West  Indies. 


1.  Great  Britain. 

2.  United  States. 

3.  Germany. 

4.  France. 

5.  Mexico. 


(Complete  commercial  statistics  for  Central  American  republics  are  not  available.) 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


215 


MEXICO— 


CUBA- 


WEST 
INDIES— 


A. 

1.  Silver. 

2.  Coffee. 

3.  Sisal  hemp. 

4.  Gold. 

5.  Cattle. 

1.  Sugar. 

2.  Tobacco. 

3.  Honey  and  wax. 

4.  Hides. 

5.  Rum. 

1.  Coffee. 

2.  Sugar. 

3.  Eum. 

4.  Cacao. 

5.  Cocoanuts. 


II,     North.   America. — Continued. 

B.  C. 

1.  Linen,  woolen  and  cotton  fab-  1.  United   States. 

rics.  2.  Great  Britain. 

2.  Hardware.  3.  France. 

3.  Machinery.  4.  Germany. 

5.  Spain. 


1.  Flour. 

2.  Rice. 

3.  Meats  and  lard. 

4.  Coal. 

5.  Kerosene. 

1.  Cotton  fabrics. 

2.  Codfish. 

3.  Flour. 

4.  Rice. 

5.  Kerosene. 


1.  United  States. 

2.  Great  Britain. 

3.  Spain. 

4.  France. 

5.  Belgium. 

1.  United  States. 

2.  Great  Britain. 

3.  Cuba. 

4.  France. 

5.  Denmark. 


[Bermuda   onions   and  asphalt  from  Trinidad  are  very   important  exports.] 


ARGENTINE 
REPUBLIC— 


COIX)MBIA— 


BOLIVIA- 


BRAZIL^ 


A. 

1.  Wool. 

2.  Meats.* 

3.  Live  stock. 

4.  Hides  and  horns. 

5.  Wheat. 

1.  Coffee. 

2.  Timber. 

3.  Vegetables. 

4.  Tobacco. 

5.  Hides  and  cattle. 


III.    South   America. 


B. 


Silver. 

Tin  and  bismuth. 

Copper. 

Rubber. 

Quina. 


Coffee. 

Rubber. 

Tobacco. 

Hides. 

Cacao. 


1. 

Textile  fabrics. 

1. 

Great  Britain. 

2. 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

2. 

France. 

3. 

Breadstuffs. 

3. 

Germany. 

4. 

Crockery  and  glass. 

4. 

Belgium. 

5. 

Beverages. 

5. 

United  States. 

I. 

Foodstuffs. 

1. 

United  States. 

2. 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

2. 

Great  Britain. 

3. 

Textile  fabrics. 

3; 

Germany. 

4. 

Beverages. 

4. 

France. 

5. 

Kerosene. 

5. 

West  Indies. 

1.  Breadstuffs. 

2.  Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

3.  Beverages. 

4.  Textile  fabrics. 

5.  Ready-made  clothing. 


1.  Breadstuffs. 

2.  Meats. 

3.  Coal. 

4.  Machinery. 

5.  Textile  fabrics. 


Has  no  seaport,  and  carries  on 
its  foreign  trade  through  Chile, 
Argentine,  Brazil,  and  Peru. 

Great  Britain,  Germany  and 
United  States  furnish  most  of  the 
imports  purchased  by  Bolivia,  that 
are  not  furnished  by  the  above- 
named  republics. 

1.  United  States. 

2.  France. 

3.  Great  Britain. 

4.  Germany. 

5.  Belgium. 


[Until    1867    Brazil    was    the    chief    source  of  the  world's  diamonds.     Since    that   date   her  diamonds   have   largely 
been  supplanted  by  the  Kimberley  Diamonds  of  South  Africa.] 


CHILE- 


ECUADOR- 


1.  Nitrate. 

2.  Copper. 

3.  Wheat. 

4.  Gold. 

5.  Beans. 

1.  Cacao. 

2.  Coffee. 

3.  Rubber. 

4.  Hides. 

5.  Vegetable  ivory. 


1.  Textile  fabrics. 

2.  Cattle. 

3.  Machinery. 

4.  Oil. 

5.  Tea. 

1.  Breadstuffs. 

2.  Textile  fabrics. 

3.  Machinery. 

4.  Kerosene. 

5.  T^rd. 


1.  Great  Britain. 

2.  Germany. 

3.  United  States. 

4.  France. 

5.  Peru. 

1.  France. 

2.  Great  Britain. 

3.  United  States. 

4.  Spain. 

5.  Peru. 


♦The  world's  largest  frozen-meat  plant  Is  located  at  Buenoe  Aires. 


214 


COMMERCIAL  OEOGRAPHY. 


I. 

Europe.— Contmued. 

/ 

A. 

B. 

C. 

PORTUGAL— 

1. 

Wine. 

1. 

Wheat. 

1. 

Great  Britain. 

2. 

Cork. 

2. 

Textile  fibers  and  fabrics. 

2. 

Germany. 

3. 

Fish. 

3. 

Sugar. 

3. 

United  States. 

4. 

Copper. 

4. 

Coal. 

4. 

Brazil. 

/ 

5. 

Subtropical  fruits. 

5. 

Iron. 

5. 

Spain. 

RUSSIA— 

1. 

Wheat  and  flour. 

1. 

Textile  fibers. 

1. 

Germany. 

2. 

Timber  and  wooden  goods. 

2. 

Machinery. 

2. 

Great  Britain. 

3. 

Flax  fiber. 

3. 

Tea. 

3. 

France. 

4. 

Leather  goods  and  furs. 

4. 

Coal,  coke,  etc. 

4. 

Holland. 

( 

5. 

Dairy  produce  and  eggs. 

5. 

Chemicals. 

5. 

Austria. 

SPAIN— 

L 

Wine. 

1. 

Cotton  and  cotton  manufac- 

1. 

France. 

2. 

Cork. 

tures. 

9_ 

Great  Britain. 

3. 

Oranges,  olives  and  olive  oil. 

2. 

Machinery. 

3. 

United   States. 

4. 

Minerals. 

3. 

Live  animals  and  meats. 

4. 

Portugal. 

i 

5. 

Raw  silk. 

4. 
5. 

Timber  and  wood. 
Woolen  and  silk  goods. 

5. 

Germany. 

SWEDEN  AND 

1. 

Lumber   and   wood  manufac- 

1. 

Breadstuflfs. 

1. 

Great   Britain. 

NORWAY— 

tures.* 

2. 

Textile  fibers  and  fabrics. 

2. 

Germany. 

' 

2. 

Fish. 

3. 

Machinery. 

3. 

Denmark. 

3. 

Swedish  ores. 

4. 

JVIetals. 

4. 

Russia. 

4. 

Animal  products  ( malty  food ) 

.  5. 

Vegetable  products. 

5. 

France. 

/ 

5. 

Paper    and    paper    manufac- 
tures. 

SWITZER- 

L 

Silk  and  cotton  fabrics. 

1. 

BreadstuflFs. 

I. 

Great  Britain. 

LAND— 

2. 

Clocks  and  watches. 

2. 

Raw  silk  and  cotton. 

2. 

Germany. 

3. 

Colors. 

3. 

Metals     and     mineral     sub- 

3. 

Denmark. 

4. 

Machinery. 

stances. 

4. 

Russia. 

t 

5. 

Condensed  milk. 

4. 
5. 

Coal,  coke,  etc. 

Leather  and  leather  goods. 

.   5. 

France. 

TURKEY— 

1. 

Wine. 

1. 

Textile  fabrics. 

1. 

Great  Britain. 

2. 

Fruits. 

2. 

Sugar. 

2. 

Austria. 

3. 

Rugs  and  carpets. 

3. 

BreadstuflFs. 

3. 

France. 

4. 

Tobacco. 

4. 

CoflFee. 

4. 

Russia. 

5. 

Sponges  and  pearls. 

5. 

Petroleum. 

5. 

Italy. 

*  Sweden  is  the  largest  lumber-exporting  country  In  Europe.    It  is  also  a  match  factory  for  the  world. 


II.    Nortli   America. 


UNITED 
STATES- 


CANADA— 


REPUBLICS 
OF  CENTRAL 
AMERICA— 


A. 

1.  BreadstuflFs. 

2.  Cotton. 

3.  Meat  and  dairy  products. 

4.  Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

5.  Petroleum. 

1.  Wood  and  manufactures. 

2.  Wheat  and  flour. 

3.  Cheese. 

4.  Fish. 

5.  Gold. 

1.  CoflFee. 

2.  Bananas. 

3.  Hides  and  skins. 

4.  Cedar  and  dyewoods. 

6.  Caoutchouc. 


B. 

1.  Sugar.  • 

2.  Hides  and  skins. 

3.  Chemicals,  drugs  and  dyes. 

4.  Coflfee. 

5.  Raw  silk. 


manufactures. 


1.  Iron  and  steel 

2.  Coal  and  coke. 

3.  Woolen  goods. 

4.  Sugar. 

5.  Cottons. 

1.  Cotton  goods. 

2.  Hardware. 

3.  Flour. 

4.  General    manufactures. 

5.  Tinware. 


C. 

1.  Great  Britain. 

2.  Germany. 

3.  France. 

4.  Canada. 

5.  Netherlands. 


Great  Britain. 
United  States. 
Germany. 
France. 
West  Indies. 


1.  Great  Britain. 

2.  United  States. 

3.  Germany. 

4.  France. 

5.  Mexico. 


(Complete  commercial  statistics  for  Central  American  republics  are  not  available.) 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


215 


II.    Nortli   America. — Continued. 


A. 

B. 

C. 

MEXICO- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Silver. 
Coffee. 
Sisal  hemp. 
Gold. 
Cattle. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Linen,  woolen  and  cotton  fab- 
rics. 
Hardware. 
Machinery. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

United   States. 
Great  Britain. 
France. 
Germany. 
Spain. 

CUBA— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Sugar. 

Tobacco. 

Honey  and  wax. 

Hides. 

Rum. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Flour. 

Rice. 

Meats  and  lard. 

Coal. 

Kerosene. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

United  States. 
Great  Britain. 
Spain. 
France. 
Belgium. 

WEST 
INDIES— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Coffee. 

Sugar. 

Rum. 

Cacao. 

Cocoanuts. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Cotton  fabrics. 

Codfish. 

Flour. 

Rice. 

Kerosene. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

United  States. 
Great  Britain. 
Cuba. 
France. 
Denmark. 

[Bermuda   onions   and  asphalt  from  Trinidad  are  very  important  exports.] 


A. 

ARGENTINE 
REPUBLIC— 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

Wool. 

Meats.* 

Live  stock. 

Hides  and  horns. 

Wheat. 

1. 
2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 

COTX)MBIA— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Coffee. 

Timber. 

Vegetables. 

Tobacco. 

Hides  and  cattle. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

BOLIVIA— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Silver. 

Tin  and  bismuth. 

Copper. 

Rubber. 

Quina. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

III.    South.   America. 


B. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

Breadstuffs. 

Crockery  and  glass. 

Beverages. 

Foodstuffs. 
2.    Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Beverages. 
5.    Kerosene. 

Breadstuffs. 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

Beverages. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Ready-made  clothing. 


BRAZII^ 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
.5. 

Coffee. 

Rubber. 

Tobacco. 

Hides. 

Cacao. 

I. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Breadstuffs. 
Meats. 
Coal. 

Machinery. 
Textile  fabrics. 

[Until    1867    Brazil    was    the    chief    source 
been  supplanted  by  the  Kimberley  Diamonds 

of 
of 

the  world's   diamonds. 
South  Africa.] 

CHILE- 

1. 
2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 

Nitrate. 

Copper. 

Wheat. 

Gold. 

Beans, 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Cattle. 

Machinery. 

Oil. 

Tea. 

ECUADOR- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Cacao. 

Coffee. 

Rubber. 

Hides. 

Vegetable 

ivory. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Breadstuffs. 
Textile  fabrics. 
Machinery. 
Kerosene. 
Lard. 

(7. 

1.  Great  Britain. 

2.  France. 

3.  Germany. 

4.  Belgium. 

5.  United  States. 

1.  United  States. 

2.  Great  Britain. 
3;    Germany. 

4.  France. 

5.  West  Indies. 

Has  no  seaport,  and  carries  on 
its  foreign  trade  through  Chile, 
Argentine,  Brazil,  and  Peru. 

Great  Britain,  Germany  and 
United  States  furnish  most  of  the 
imports  purchased  by  Bolivia,  that 
are  not  furnished  by  the  above- 
named  republics. 


United  States. 
France. 

Great  Britain. 
Germany. 
Belgium. 


Since    that   date  her  diamonds   have   largely 

1.  Great  Britain. 

2.  Germany. 

3.  United  States. 

4.  France. 

5.  Peru. 

1.  France. 

2.  Great  Britain. 

3.  United  States. 

4.  Spain. 

5.  Peru. 


*  The  world's  largest  frozen-meat  plant  is  located  at  Buenos  Aires. 


216 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


4. 

GUIANA- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Sugar. 

Rubber. 

Molasses. 

Rum. 

Gold. 

[From 

PARAGUAY— 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

Yerba  mat6. 

Hides. 

Timber. 

Tobacco. 

Oranges. 

PERU- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Silver. 

Copper. 

Sugar. 

Cotton. 

Hides. 

URUGUAY— 

1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

L' 

Jerked  beef. 

Wool. 

Horns  and  bone  ash, 

Frozen  meats. 

Flax. 

VENEZUELA— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Coffee. 

Cacao. 

Hides  and  skins. 

Rubber. 

Gold. 

III.     South.   America. — Continued. 
B. 


Flour. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Coal. 

Meats   ( dried ) . 

Hardware. 


French   Guiana   is   obtained    cayenne  pepper.] 

1.  Textile  fabrics.  1. 

2.  Wine.  2. 

3.  Rice.  3. 

4.  Wlieat.  4. 

5.  Hardware. 


Textile  fabrics. 

Machinery. 

Hardware. 

Breadstuffs. 

Lumber. 


[Cinchona  bark  is  an  important  export.] 

1.  Foodstuffs. 

2.  Beverages. 

3.  Textile  fabrics. 

4.  Machinery. 

5.  Coal. 

1.  Breadstuffs. 

2.  Textile  fabrics. 

3.  Machinery. 

4.  Coal. 

5.  Kerosene. 


C 
Great  Britain. 
United  States. 
Netherlands. 
France. 
West  Indies. 


Argentine. 
Uruguay. 
Great  Britain. 
Brazil. 

Great  Britain. 
Germany. 
United  States. 
Chile. 
France. 

Argentine. 
Great  Britain. 
France. 
Brazil. 
Belgium. 

United  States. 
Great  Britain. 
Germany. 
France. 
Cuba. 


ALGERIA— 


ABYSSINIA- 


1.  Vegetables. 

2.  Wines. 

3.  Dates. 

4.  Cereals. 

5.  Tobacco. 


1.  Coffee. 

2.  Civet. 

3.  Wax. 

4.  Gold. 

5.  Ivory. 

CAPE  COIX)NY— 1.  Gold. 

2.  Diamonds. 

3.  Ostrich  feathers. 

4.  Wool. 

5.  Hides. 


EGYPT- 


KONGO  INDE- 
PENDENT 
STATE— 


1.  Cotton. 

2.  Cereals. 

3.  Tobacco. 

4.  Beans. 

5.  Dates. 

1.  Rubber. 

2.  Ivory. 

3.  Palm  nuts. 

4.  Palm  oil. 

5.  Coffee. 


IV.    Africa. 

B. 

1.  Cattle. 

2.  Timber. 

3.  Coal. 

4.  Machinery. 

5.  Coffee. 

1.  Textile  fabrics. 

2.  French  mirrors  and  cutlery. 

3.  Matches. 

4.  Firearms. 

5.  Spirits. 

1.  Textile  fabrics. 

2.  Breadstuffs. 

3.  Machinery. 

4.  Lumber. 

5.  Naval  stores. 


1.  Cotton  fabrics. 

2.  Coal. 

3.  Petroleum. 

4.  Machinery. 

1.  Textile  fabrics. 

2.  Foodstuffs. 

3.  Machinery. 

4.  Beverages. 

5.  Steamers. 


1.  France. 

2.  Great  Britain. 

3.  Morocco. 

4.  Tunis. 

5.  Russia. 

1.  Egypt. 

2.  Great  Britain. 

3.  India. 

4.  France. 

1.    Great  Britain. 

Nearly  all  exports  go  to  Great 
Britain,  and  a  large  portion  of  im- 
ports come  from  that  country.  The 
United  States,  India,  Germany  and 
France  furnish  most  of  the  remain- 
ing imports. 

1.  Great  Britain. 

2.  France  and  Algeria. 

3.  Russia. 

4.  United  States. 

5.  Germany. 

1.  Belgium. 

2.  Great  Britain. 

3.  Neighboring  possessions. 

4.  Germany. 

5.  Netherlands. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


217 


IV.    Africa. — Continued. 

A. 

B. 

G. 

MADAGASCAR- 

-  1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Rubber. 

Wax. 

Hides. 

Gold. 

Vanilla. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
6. 

Cotton  textiles. 

Beverages. 

Flour. 

Tobacco. 

Machinery. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 

France. 

Great  Britain. 

Germany. 

Neighboring  possessions. 

MOROCCO— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Goat-skins. 

Cattle. 

W^ool. 

Eggs. 

Beans. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Sugar. 

Tea. 

Hardware. 

Candles. 

Petroleum. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Great  Britain. 

France. 

Germany. 

Spain. 

Rest  of  Barbary  states. 

NATAL- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Wool. 

Hides  and  skins. 

Coal. 

Gold. 

Bark. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

Breadstuff  s. 

Machinery. 

Leather  goods. 

1. 
2. 

Great  Britain. 
Cape  Colony. 

ORANGE                 1. 

FREE  STATE— 2. 

3. 

4. 

Animal  products. 

Diamonds. 

Garnets. 

Coal. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

General  merchandise. 

Cereals. 

Wool. 

Horses. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 

Cape  Colony. 

Natal. 

Basutoland. 

South  African  Republic. 

SOUTH 
AFRICAN 
REPUBLIC— 

[Now  in  state  oi 

1.  Gold. 

2.  Wool. 

3.  Cattle  and  hides. 

4.  Ostrich  feathers. 

5.  Ivory. 

t  war  with  Great  Britain - 

1.  Machinery. 

2.  Textile  fabrics. 

3.  Hardware. 

4.  Leather  goods. 

5.  Timber. 

-nation  in  control.     Therefore  no 

1.  Cape  Colony. 

2.  Great  Britain. 

3.  Rest  of  Europe. 

4.  Natal. 

5.  Orange  Free  State. 

late  data  on  commerce.     Data  for  1897.] 

TRIPOLI- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Esparto  (a  grass  fiber) 

Sponges. 

Barley. 

Madder. 

Henna  leaves. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

Textiles. 

General  manufactures.* 

Glassware. 

Sugar. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

The  Sudan  Country. 

Great  Britain. 

France. 

Germany. 

Italy. 

TUNIS— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

0. 

Wheat. 

Olive  oil. 

Zinc. 

Alfa  (grass  fiber). 

Wine. 

1. 
2. 
3! 
4. 
5. 

Textiles. 
Foodstuffs. 
Sugar. 
Machinery. 
Railroad  materials. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

France. 

Great  Britain. 
Italy. 
Algeria. 
Russia. 

[Dates  of  the 

oases  are 

the  best  in  the  commercial  world.] 

♦Tripoli  carries  on  a  large  caravan  trade  with  the  Sudan,  and  many  of  these  articles  are  for  the  Sudanese  trade. 


V.    Asia. 

A. 

B. 

G. 

ARABIA— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Mocha  coffee. 

Ivory. 

Sheep  and  goat  skins. 

Gum  arable  and  myrrh. 

Pearls. 

1. 
2. 

Cotton  fabrics. 
General  manufactures. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Great  Britain. 
United  States. 
India. 
Egypt. 
Zanzibar. 

AFGHANISTAN- 

-1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

Cotton  goods. 

Fruits  and  vegetables. 

Cereals    (barley,  wheat,  rice, 

corn ) . 
Felts  and  carpets. 
Drugs  (crude). 

L 
2. 
3. 

Machinery. 

Firearms  and  ammunition. 

General  manufactures. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

India. 
Persia. 
China. 

•Great  Britain. 
Russia. 

CHINA— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Silk. 

Tea. 

Hides. 

Matting  and  straw  braid. 

Chinaware  and  pottery. 

I. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Cotton  fabrics. 

Opium. 

Kerosene. 

Metals. 

Coal.^ 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

Hong  Kong. 
Great  Britain. 
Japan. 

United  States. 
India. 

218 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


V. 

Asia. — Continued. 

A. 

B. 

C. 

INDIA- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Cotton. 
Rice. 
Jute. 
Wheat. 
Oil  seeds. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Cotton  fabrics. 

Metals  and  hardware. 

Machinery. 

Sugar. 

Oils. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Great  Brtain. 

China. 

France. 

Straits  Settlements. 

Belgium. 

[Opium 

is  a  large  export.] 

JAPAN— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

5. 

Raw  silk  and  silk  textiles. 

Cotton  yarns. 

Coal. 

Tea. 

Copper. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

Raw  cotton. 

Rice. 

Sugar. 

Cotton  textiles. 

Kerosejie. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

United  States. 

Netherlands. 

China. 

Italy. 

Great  Britain. 

[Japan, 

through  Formosa,  is  the  chief  source  of 

camphor 

gum.] 

PERSIA— 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 

Opium. 
Pearls. 
Dried  fruits. 
Textile   fibers 
silk). 

( cotton, 

wool, 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Glass. 

Carriages. 

Sugar. 

Petroleum. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

India. 
Russia. 

Great  Britain. 
France. 
Germany. 

5.    Carpets. 
[The  world's  greatest  pearl  center  is  near  the  Bahrein  Islands,  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  richest  turquoises  in  the  market 
come  from  the  Persian  mines  situated  at  Nishapur.] 


RUSSIAN  ASIA- 


1 .  Cotton. 

2.  Petroleum. 

3.  Wheat. 

4.  Furs. 

5.  Gold. 


1 .  Breadstuff s. 

2.  Farm   implements. 

3.  Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

4.  Textile  manufactures. 

5.  Railroad  supplies. 
[The  Trans-Siberian  Railroad,  now  open  via  the  Manchurian  branch,  is  one    of    the    greatest    feats    of    engineering 

skill.      It    will    be    a    great    factor    in    developing  commerce   in   Russian  Asia.] 


1.  Russia. 

2.  Japan. 

3.  United  States. 

4.  Korea. 

5.  Persia. 


VI.    Australasia. 


A. 

B. 

C. 

AUSTRALIA- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Wool. 

Frozen  and  preserved  meats. 

Gold. 

Hides  and  skins. 

Dairy  products. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Hardware  and  machinery. 

Coffee  and  tea. 

Sugar. 

Petroleum. 

1. 
2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 

Great  Britain. 
New   Zealand   and 

Australasia. 
Germany. 
France. 
United  States. 

the 

rest  of 

EAST  INDIES- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Sugar. 

Coffee  and  tea. 

Spices. 

Cinchona  bark. 

Tin. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 

Cotton  yarn  and  fabrics. 
Hardware. 
Machinery. 
Fertilizers. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

Netherlands. 
Great  Britain. 
China. 
United  States. 

NEW 

ZEALAND- 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Wool. 

Frozen  meat. 

Gold. 

Kauri  gum    (fossil). 

Dairy  products. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 

Textile  fabrics. 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

Sugar. 

Paper  and  stationery. 

Beverages. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Great  Britain. 
Australia. 
United  States. 
Pacific  Islands. 
India. 

POLYNESIA— 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Copra  and  coeoanuts. 

Pearl  and  tortoise  shell. 

Tropical  friiits. 

Sugar. 

Sago  and  spices. 

1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Cotton  goods. 

Hardware. 

Machinery. 

Foodstuffs. 

Kerosene. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Australia. 
New  Zealand. 
Great  Britain. 
United  States. 
France. 

COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


219 


WORLD    CITIES    RANKED    ACCORDING   TO    POPULATION. 


( From  Statesman's  Tear  Book  and  United  States  census  for  1900. 

No.  Name.  Census.  Population.  Continent. 

1.  London 1891  4,211,056  Europe. 

2.  New  York  1900  3,437,202  North  America. 

3.  Paris 1896  2,536,834  Europe. 

4.  Berlin 1900  1,843,000  Europe. 

5.  Chicago 1900  1,698,575  North  America. 

6.  Canton *. . .    1,600,000  Asia. 

7.  Tokio 1898  1,452,564  Asia. 

8.  Vienna 1891   1,364,548  Europe. 

9.  Philadelphia 1900  1,293,697  North  America. 

10.  St.  Petersburg 1897  1,267,023  Europe. 

11.  Peking. *. . .    1,000,000  Asia. 

12.  Moscow 1897      988,614  Europe. 

13.  Constantinople 1885      873,560  Europe. 

14.  Calcutta 1891      861,764  Asia. 

15.  Bombay 1891      821,764  Asia. 

16.  Osaka 1898      821,235  Asia. 

17.  Buenos  Aires  1895      663,854  South  America. 

18.  Warsaw 1897      638,209  Europe. 

19.  Hamburg 1895      625,552  Europe. 

20.  Glasgow 1891      618,052  Europe. 

21.  St.  Louis 1900      575,238  North  America. 

22.  Cairo 1897      570,062  Africa. 

23.  Brussels 1898      561,130  Europe. 

24.  Boston 1900      560.892  North  America. 

25.  Naples 1898      540,393  Europe. 

26.  Rio  Janeiro 1890      522,651  South  America. 

27.  Liverpool 1891      517,980  Europe. 

28.  Amsterdam 1898      512,953  Europe. 

29.  Baltimore 1900      508,957  North  America. 

30.  Buda-Pesth 1891      505,763  Europe. 

31.  Manchester 1891      505,368  Europe. 

32.  Rome 1898      500,610  Europe. 

33.  Melbourne 1891      490,900  Australia. 

34.  Milan 1898      481,297  Europe. 

35.  Birmingham 1891      478,113  Europe.  « 

36.  Madrid 1887      470,283  Europe. 

37.  Lyons 1896      466,028  Europe. 

38.  Madras 1891      452,518  Asia. 

39.  Marseilles 1896      442,289  Europe. 

40.  Haidarabad 1891      415,039  Asia. 

41.  Munich 1895      407,307  Europe. 

42.  Odessa 1897      405,041  Europe. 

43.  Mexico 1900      402,000  North  America. 

44.  Leipsic 1895      399,963  Europe. 

45.  Sydney 1891      383,320  Australia. 

46.  Cleveland 1900      381,768  North  America. 

47.  Shanghai *.  . .       380,000  Asia. 

48.  Breslau 1895      373,169  Europe. 

49.  Leeds 1891      367,505  Europe. 

50.  Turin 1898      355,800  Europe. 

51.  Kioto 1898      353,139  Asia. 

52.  Buffalo 1900      352,387  North  America. 

53.  San  Francisco 1900      342,782  North  America. 

54.  Dresden 1895      336,440  Europe. 

55.  Cincinnati 1900      325,902  North  America. 

56.  Sheffield 1891      324,243  Europe. 

57.  Pittsburg 1900      321,626  North  America. 

58.  Cologne ..1895      321,564  Europe. 

59.  Santiago  (Chile) 320,628  South  America. 

60.  Alexandria 1897      319,766  Africa. 

61.  Lodz 1897      315,209  Europe. 

62.  Copenhagen 1890      312,859  Europe. 

*  Estimated. 


Numbers  here  given  correspond  to  numbers  given  on  world  map.) 

No.            Name.                               Census.  Population.  Continent. 

63.  Rotterdam 1898  309,309  Europe. 

64.  Lisbon 1890  301,206  Europe. 

65.  Stockhqlm 1898  295,789  Europe. 

66.  Palermo 1898  290,951  Europe. 

67.  New  Orleans 1900  287,104  North  America. 

68.  Detroit 1900  285,704  North  America. 

69.  Milwaukee 1900  285,315  North  America. 

70.  Antwerp 1895  277,576  Europe. 

71.  Lucknow 1891  273,028  Asia. 

72.  Barcelona 1887  272,428  Europe. 

73.  Edinburgh 1891  264,796  Europe. 

74.  Bordeaux 1896  256,906  Europe. 

75.  Riga 1898  256,197  Europe. 

76.  Belfast 1891  255,950  Europe. 

77.  Bangkok *...  250,000  Asia. 

78.  Montevideo *. . .  249,251  South  America. 

79.  Kieff 1897  247,432  Europe. 

80.  Newark 1900  246,070  North  America. 

81.  Dublin 1891  245,001  Europe. 

82.  Nagoya 1898  244,145  Asia. 

83.  Genoa 1898  232,777  Europe. 

84.  Bucharest 1894  232,000  Europe. 

85.  Frankfort-on-Main .  1895  229,279  Europe. 

86.  Bristol 1891  221,578  Europe. 

87.  Hong  Kong 1891  221,441  Asia. 

88.  Benares 1891  219,467  Asia. 

89.  Montreal 1891  216,650  North  America. 

90.  Bradford 1891  216,361  Europe. 

91.  Lille 1896  216,276  Europe. 

92.  Kobe 1898  215,780  Asia. 

93.  Magdeburg 1895  214,424  Europe. 

94.  Nottingham 1891  213,877  Europe. 

95.  Florence 1898  212,898  Europe. 

96.  Teheran 1881  210,000  Asia. 

97.  Hanover 1895  209,535  Europe. 

98.  .Jersey  City 1900  206,433  North  America. 

99.  West  Ham 1891  204,903  Europe. 

100.  Louisville 1900  204,731  North  America. 

101.  Minneapolis 1900  202,718  North  America. 

102.  Hull 1891  200,044  Europe. 

103.  Damascus *. . .  200,000  Asia. 

104.  Seoul *...  200,000  Asia. 

105.  Smyrna 1885  200,000  Asia. 

106.  The  Hague 1898  199,285  Europe. 

107.  Havana 198,270  North  America. 

108.  Salford 1891  198,139  Europe. 

109.  Yokohama 1898  193,762  Asia. 

1 10.  Delhi 1891  192,579  Asia. 

111.  Mandelay 1891  188,815  Asia. 

112.  Cawnpore 1891  188,712  Asia. 

113.  Newcastle 1891  186,300  Europe. 

114.  Prague 1891  184,109  Europe. 

115.  Toronto 1891  181,220  North  America. 

116.  Bangalore 1891  180,366  Asia. 

117.  Rangoon 1891  180,324  Asia. 

118.  Tabriz 1881  180,000  Asia. 

119.  Lahore 1891  176,854  Asia. 

120.  Dusseldorf 1895  175,985  Europe. 

121.  Providence 1900  175,597  North  America. 

122.  Allahabad 1891  175,246  Asia. 

123.  Kharkorf 1897  174,841  Europe. 

124.  Leicester 1891  174,624  Europe. 

♦Estimated. 


220 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


World    Cities   Ranked   According   to 
Population. — Continued. 

Ifo.  Name.  Census.  PopulatUm.  Continent. 

125.  Bahia 1890  174,412  South  America. 

126.  Konigsberg 1895  172,796  Europe. 

127.  Valencia 1887  170,763  Europe. 

128.  Liege 1898  169,202  Europe. 

129.  Indianapolis 1900  169,164  North  America. 

130.  Agra 1891  168,662  Asia. 

131.  Patna 1891  165,192  Asia. 

132.  Kansas  City 1900  163,752  North  America. 

133.  St.  Paul 1900  163,065  North  America. 

134.  Ghent 1898  162,652  Europe. 

135.  Rochester 1900  162,608  North  America. 

136.  Nuremberg ...1895  162,386  Europe. 

137.  Poona 1891  161,390  Asia. 

138.  Chemnitz 1895  161,017  Europe. 

139.  Vilna 1897  159,568  Europe. 

140.  Portsmouth 1891  159,251  Europe. 

141.  Jaipur 1891  158,905  Asia. 

142.  Trieste 1891  158,344  Europe. 

143.  Stuttgart 1895  158,321  Europe. 

144.  Venice 1898  157,099  Europe. 

145.  Bologna 1898  155,787  Europe. 

146.  Dundee 1891  155,671  Europe. 

147.  Messina 1898  154,436  Europe. 

148.  Manila 1887  154,062  Asia. 

149.  Tunis *...  153,000  Africa. 

•150.  Zurich 1897  151,994  Europe. 

*  Estimated. 


Smaller   Cities   of   Great   Commercial 
Importance . 

A. — Auckland,  Australasia. 

B. — Ballarat,  Australia. 

Bu. — Butte,  North  America. 

0.  T.— Cape  Town,  Africa. 

D.— Dawson  City,  North  America. 

Du. — Duluth,  North  America. 

Ga. — Galveston,  North  America. 

G. — Guayaquil,  South  America. 

Iq. — Iquique,  South  America, 

I. — Irkutsk,  Asia. 

J. — Johannesburg,  Africa. 

K. — Kiakhta,  Asia. 

Kim. — Kimberly,  Africa. 

M. — Mobile,  North  America. 

N. — Nome  City,  North  America. 

Or. — Orenberg,  Asia. 

O. — Ottawa  (Canada),  North  America. 

Sea. — Seattle,  North  America. 

S. — Singapore,  Asia. 

T. — Tomsk,  Asia. 

Val. — Valparaiso,  South  America. 

V. — Victoria,  North  America. 

W. — Winnipeg,  North  America. 


FACTS    ABOUT    AMERICAN    CITIES. 


The  census  of  1900  enumerated  3715  organized 
villages,  towns,  and  cities.  The  25  largest  cities 
are  already  given  in  the  list  of  world  cities. 

Below  is  given  the  161  important  commercial 
centers  of  our  nation,  in  alphabetical  order.  These 
are  the  cities  that  have  a  population  of  25,000  or 
more  inhabitants. 

Rank.        Names.  Commercial  Nicknames. 

87.  Akron,  Ohio — Oat  Meal  City,  and  Buckeye  Reaper 

Town. 

40.  Albany,  N.  Y.— Gate  City  of  the  Hudson. 

27.  Allegheny,  Pa. — Tannery  City. 
114.  Allentown,  Pa. 

97.  Altoona,  Pa. 

43.  Atlanta,  Ga.— Gate  City  of  the  South. 
149.  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.— Beach  City. 
135.  Auburn,  N.  Y. 

94.  Augusta,  Ga. 

6.  Baltimore,  Md. — Monumental  City ;  Oystertown. 
151.  Bay  City,  Mich. 
125.  Bayonne,  N.  J. 

93.  Binghamton,  N.  Y. 

100.  Birmingham,  Ala. — Iron  City  of  the  South. 
5.  Boston,  Mass. — City  of  Notions. 

54.  Bridgeport,  Conn. 


Rank.        Names.  Commercial  Nieknames. 

92.  Brockton,  Mass.  —  Shoe  City. 
8.  Buffalo,  N.  Y. —  Queen  of  the  Lakes. 
133.  Butte,  Mont.— Copper  City. 

41.  Cambridge,  Mass.— University  City. 

52.  Camden,  N.  J.— Pen  City  ;  Oilcloth  City. 
132.  Canton,  Ohio.— McKinley  City. 

159.  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa. 

68.  Charleston,  S.  C— Palmetto  City. 

136.  Chattanooga,  Tenn. 

118.  Chelsea,  Mass. 

119.  Chester,  Pa. 

2.  Chicago,  111. —  Grain  City  ;  Porkopolis. 

10.  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Queen  of  the  Ohio. 
7.  Cleveland, Ohio. — ForestCity  ;  Sewing-MachineCity. 

28.  Columbus,  Ohio. 
158.  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa. 

86.  Covington,  Ky. 

88.  Dallas,  Tex. 
115.  Davenport,  Iowa. 

45.  Dayton,  Ohio. 

25.  Denver,  Col. — Queen  of  the  Plains. 

59.  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

13.  Detroit,  Mich.— City  of  the  Straits. 
108.  Dubuque,  Iowa. 

72.  Duluth,  Minn. —  Zenith  City  of  the  Unsalted  Seas. 

160.  Easton,  Pa. 

137.  East  St.  Louis,  111. 

74.  Elizabeth,  N.  J.— Singer  City. 
113.  Elmira,  N.  Y. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


221 


Bank.        Names.                            Commercial  Nickname*. 

Bank.        Names.                            Commercial  Nicknames. 

73.  Erie,  Pa. 

20.  Providence,  R.  I. — Jewelry  City ;  has  largest  cotton 

64.  Evansville,  Ind. 

factory  in  the  world. 

33.  Fall  River,  Mass.— Cloth  City. 

148.  Pueblo,  Col. -Steel  City  of  the  West. 

128.  Fitchburg,  Mass. 

100.  Quincy,  111. 

83.  Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

140.  Racine,  Wis.— Carriage  City. 

152.  Fort  AV^orth,  Tex. 

50.  Reading,  Pa. 

103.  Galveston,Tex.— Cotton  City;  Hurricane  City. 

46.  Richmond,  Va. —  Cockade  City. 

154.  Gloucester,  Mass.— Fisherman's  Town. 

24.  Rochester,  N.  Y.— Flower  City  ;  Aqueduct  City. 

44.  Grand  Rapids,  Mich. — Furniture  City. 

130.  Rockford,  111.— Watch  City. 

77.  Harrisburg,  Pa. 

139.  Sacramento,  Cal. 

49.  Hartford,  Conn.— Insurance  City. 

89.  Saginaw,  Mich. 

105.  Haverhill,  Mass.— Shoe  City. 

111.  Salem,  Mass.— Shoe  City. 

63.  Hoboken,  N.  J. 

70.  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah.— Mormon  City. 

82.  Holyoke,  Mass. — Paper  City. 

71.  San  Antonio,  Tex, 

95.  Honolulu,  Hawaii— Island  Queen. 

9.  San  Francisco,  Cal. —  Golden  Gate. 

85.  Houston,  Tex. 

69.  Savannah,  Ga. — Forest  City  of  the  South. 

21.  Indianapolis,  Ind. — Railroad  City. 

127.  Schenectady,  N.  Y.— Locomotive  City. 

161.  Jackson,  Mich. 

38.  Scranton.  Pa.— Anthracite  City, 

143.  Jacksonville,  Fla. — Pineapple  City. 

48.  Seattle,  Wash. 

17.  Jersey,  N.  J.— Transportation  City. 

124.  Sioux  City,  Iowa. 

112.  Johnstown,  Pa.— Flood  City. 

61.  Somerville,  Mass. 

138.  Joliet,  111. 

110.  South  Bend,  Ind.— Wagon  City. 

155.  Joplin,  Mo. —  Zinc  City. 

156.  South  Omaha,  Neb. 

76.  Kansas  City,  Kan. 

106.  Spokane,  Wash. 

22.  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

117.  Springfield,  111. 

126.  Knoxville,  Tenn. 

60.  Springfield,  Mass.— Gun  City. 

141.  La  Crosse,  Wis. 

102.  Springfield,  Ohio. 

•90.  Lancaster,  Pa. 

34.  St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

57.  Lawrence,  Mass. 

4.  St.  Louis,  Mo.— Mound  City  ;  River  Metropolis. 

153.  Lexington,  Ky. 

23.  St.  Paul,  Minn.— Fur  City  ;  North  Star  City. 

91.  Lincoln,  Neb. 

129.  Superior,  Wis. 

101.  Little  Rock,  Ark. 

30.  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

36.  Los  Angeles,  Cal.— Fruit  City. 

104.  Tacoma,  Wash. 

18.  Louisville,  Ky.— Falls  City. 

31.  Taunton,  Mass. 

39.  Lowell,  Mass. —  City  of  Spindles. 

107.  Terre  Haute,  Ind. 

55.  Lynn,  Mass. — Shoe  Metropolis. 

26.  Toledo,  Ohio.— Spice  City. 

121.  Maiden,  Mass. 

122.  Topeka,  Kan. 

65.  Manchester,  N.  H. 

53.  Trenton,  N.  J.— Pottery  City. 

116.  McKeesport,  Pa. 

62.  Troy,  N.  Y.— Nail  City. 

37.  Memphis,  Tenn. 

66.  Utica,  N.  Y.— Rose  City. 

14.  Milwaukee,  AVis. — Cream  City  ;  Schlitz's  Town. 

15.  Washington,  D.  C— City  of  Magnificent  Distances; 

19.  Minneapolis,  Minn.— Flour  City. 

Federal  City. 

99.  Mobile,  Ala. 

81.  Waterbury,  Conn.— Clock  City. 

134.  Montgomery,  Ala. 

98.  Wheeling,  W.  Va.— Glass  City. 

47.  Nashville,  Tenn. 

75.  AVilkesbarre,  Pa. 

16.  Newark,  N.  J.— Trunk  City. 

142.  Williamsport,  Pa. 

58.  New  Bedford,  Mass.— Codfish  City. 

51.  Wilmington,  Del.— Match  City. 

157.  New  Britain,  Conn. 

147.  Woonsocket,  R.  I. 

144.  Newcastle,  Pa. 

29.  Worcester.  Mass. 

31.  New  Haven,  Conn.— Elm  City. 

79.  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

12.  New  Orleans,  La.— Sugar  City;  Crescent  City. 

120.  York,  Pa. 

145.  Newport,  Ky. 

84.  Youngstown,  Ohio. 

123.  Newton,  Mass. 

1.  New  York,  N.  Y. — Empire  City  ;  Gotham;  commer- 

cial Emporium. 

The  following  cities  of  less  than  25,000  inhabit- 

80.  Norfolk,  Va. 

56.  Oakland,  Cal. 

ants  are  noted  for  special  commerce : 

35.  Omaha,  Neb. 

146.  Oshkosh,  Wis. 

Amsterdam,  N.  Y. — Carpet  City. 

150.  Passaic,  N.  J. 

Astoria,  Ore. —  Salmon  City. 

32.  Paterson,  N.  J.— Silk  City. 

Bangor,  Me. — Lumber  City. 

96.  Pawtucket,  R.  I. 

Barre,  Vt.— Marble  City. 

67.  Peoria,  111.— Distillery  City. 

Brattleboro,  Vt. — Organ  City. 

3.  Philadelphia,  Pa.— City  of  Brotherly  Love;  Centen- 

Burlington, Iowa  —  Orchard  City. 

nial  City. 

Danbury,  Conn. — Hat  City. 

11.  Pittsburg,  Pa.  — Steel  City;   Pickle  Town;    Smoky 

Elgin,  111.— Dairy  City;  Watch  City. 

City. 

Gloversville,  N.  Y.— Glove  City. 

78.  Portland,  Me.— Hill  City. 

Grand  Junction,  Colo.— Peach  City. 

42.  Portland,  Ore. 

Greeley,  Colo.— Potato  City. 

222 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Hutchinson,  Kan. —  Salt  City. 

Nome  City,  Alaska — Gold  City. 

lola,  Kan. —  Cement  City. 

Raleigh,  N.  C— Oak  City. 

Jacksonville,  Fla. — Pineapple  City. 

Rocky  Ford,  Colo. — Watermelon  City. 

Kalamazoo,  Mich. —  Celery  City. 

Salem,  Ore. — Hop  City. 

Key  West,  Fla.— Sponge  City. 

Savannah,  Ga. — Cotton  City. 

Leavenworth,  Kan. — Apple  City. 

Sheboygan,  Wis. — Evergreen  City. 

Lynchburg,  Va. — Tobacco  City. 

Virginia  City,  Nev. —  Silver  City. 

Madison,  Wis.— Lake  City. 

Wichita,  Kan.  —  Corn  City. 

Napa,  Cal.— Wine  City. 

Zanesville,  Ohio — Brick  City. 

Nashville,  Tenn.— Rock  City. 

The  f'Oregon"  and  one  of  the  great  Dry  Docks  —  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


223 


MEANING    OF    GEOGRAPHICAL    TERMS. 


1.  By  is  an  old  Anglo-Saxon  word,  meaning 
town.    Wliitbv — White  town;  Derby — Deer  town. 

2.  Chester  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  cas- 
tra,  meaning  camp.  The  sites  of  old  Roman  camps 
in  England  are  thus  preserved  in  names  of  English 
cities :  Worcester — War's  camp ;  Leicester — Lee's 
camp;    Manchester;    Lancaster;    Chichester,  etc. 

3.  Sliire  —  English  snffix,  meaning  province 
ruled  by  an  earl;  nearly  synonymous  with  our 
American  county.     Yorkshire,  Berkshire,  etc. 

4.  Terra  is  a  Latin  word  for  earth,  or ,  land. 
Mediterranean  —  in  the  middle  of  the  land  (Eu- 
rope and  Africa);  Tierra,  del  Fuego  —  land  of 
fire. 

5.  Metropolis  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words, 
meaning  Mother  City ;  hence,  the  commercial  cen- 
ter of  a  region. 

6.  de  is  from  the  Romance  languages,  and 
means  of. 

7.  Rio  is  from  a  similar  source,  and  means  river. 
Rio  de  Janeiro  —  River  of  January. 

8.  In  naming  many  riyers  and  cities  in  the 
United  States,  Indian  names  have  been  used  that 
are  not  only  suggestive  but  unique  and  historic  — 
often  the  only  relic  of  aboriginal  days. 

(a)  The  island  upon  which  part  of  the  present 
city  of  New  York  stands  was  traded  for  by  the 
Dutch  in  an  early  day.  The  Dutch  gave  the  In- 
dian owners  "  fire-water."  By  these  Indians  the 
island  was  given  the  name  it  still  bears,  Manhat- 
tan—  meaning,  "The  place  where  we  all  got 
drunk." 

(b)  Minnehaha  —  Laughing  water. 

(c)  Hiawatha  —  An  Indian  hero. 

(d)  Oklahoma  —  The  beautiful  land. 

(e)  Wabaunsee  —  Dawn  of  day. 

(/")  Mohawk,  Ojibway,  Ottawa,  Onondaga,  On- 
tario, Wyandotte,  etc.,  were  names  of  tribes  of  In- 
dians. 


9.  Dalny  is  the  recent  name  (1901)  Russia  has 
given  Talienwan,  and  means  "far  away." 

10.  The  Chinese  have  the  most  descriptive  names 
of  any  commercial  nation,  and  by  Europeans  and 
Americans  they  are  generally  the  least  understood. 

(a)  Fu  is  a  sufiix  added  to  provincial  capitals, 
as  we  add  the  explanatory  terms  "  court  house  "  or 
''  county  seat."     Chang  Chow  fu  illustrates  this. 

(6)  Hai  means  the  sea. 

(c)  Hoang  means  yellow.     Hoang  hai  is  there- 
fore Yellow  sea,  so  called  as  the  Hoang  river  cuts 
its  way  through  a  yellow  soil,  turning  the  water 
yellow  where  it  enters  into  the  sea. 
■  i^d)  Ho  means  river.    Hoang  ho  —  Yellow  river. 

(e)  Kiang  also  means  river,  but  is  used  in  the 
superlative  degree.  Yang  means  ocean;  tse  means 
son.  Hence,  Yang  tse  Kiang  means  Ocean,  son  of 
the  river.  The  Chinese  of  antiquity  believed  this 
river  to  be  greater  than  the  ocean  into  which  its 
waters  emptied  ;  hence  its  name. 

(/")  Kow  means  north  city.  Hankow  —  city 
north  of  Han  river. 

{g)  King  means  capital. 

{h)  Nan  means  south.   Xanking — south  capital. 

(i)  Pe  means  north.    Peking  —  north  capital. 

(j)  Pci  means  white.    Pei  ho  —  white  river. 

(Ar)  Tien  means  heavenly. 

(I)  Tsin  means  place.  Tien  Tsin,  therefore, 
means  heavenly  place  —  revealing  in  the  name  the 
pains  the  Chinese  have  taken  to  render  it  a  delight- 
ful place.  That  vvT^rld-traveler,  Marco  Polo,  who 
visited  this  city  600  years  ago,  named  it  the  "  citta 
celeste." 

(m)  Yum  means  transportation.  Yum  ho  is  the 
Chinese  name  for  their  Imperial  canal,  and  means 
"River  of  Transportation." 

(n)  Shanghai  means  "  city  by  the  sea." 

The  Japanese  in  a  similar  way  describe  their 
towns  as  they  name  them. 


224 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


MARINE  COMMERCE 

OF 

IMPORTANT    COMMERCIAL   NATIONS. 


MexcWnt  SYlanne  MercWvil  Wlanwe 


^ovwwxqe  "\Y\  TovAY^ 
w\\\\\ov\a 


:*<  2  'A. 


J  //j 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


225 


K  Tr\p  Through  The  \A/orld'S  Grert  P\R(\M\0S. 

LTVveae  sta\;ve>t\.ci.  (iTe^roYvi  t\ie\ate.al  telvabk  aovxTce?)  and  >rt'itk 
bat  ■?ew  exceptions  re'pte^evvi  tVe  data  \ot  ifiOol 

1.  rvlmeral  Pi^raWida. 

\'^  &o\d  m  miWion  dollars 


226 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


I      BuisVia.  i-'ll     1 
I         VigncE  i.'h      | 


CiTtat  Brilam  9 'A 


United  Stales   13  Vk 


a.  Stee\-  vA  vYvvWvon  lows 


4  Pio  \Ton  -  w  mUUon  tons 


5.  Coal  -  lA.  vwiUion  tons 


[Si 


dafayv  iT 


Spain  vPorlvi5»\    Jt 


\)n\U4   State?.  "1. 


C).  Copper  —  iwtVvowaaKd  \ov\s 


|Gil«lBr>U>na.| 


\)fferS\\e.w.a  ISO 


\Jmtei  St«Us  WTIa. 


J 


1.  imt  -  w  tkuiu?.an4  Ions.. 


Slrail^SettlemenlS . 


%.T\»v-  vn  tViousawtJ  to  as. 


J         \)mtei  &-.atts 
j                M014J 

H»SOt 

/  5um«.troi  I '/,  [ 


Mnite*  Stotes  51 


(\  .  VvdbvlveT  -  m'^W=.ks,1(o;/x\^t£^'v       \c>  ttuAe  Petvi,\eum-amx\Wbwreis..'',5aoi.eftyt 


■  I  'w^^«l, 
,^^r"^"  I, 


G»Ma«uj  Vto 


E.I\(y\c\jiLwTa\ 


1 


&t«av  Britain  H^i 


\JivvtU  &to.te»  »«> 


»aoWl  RAma\Mimo.\  ?t0^u.C.te''i'\.        \.C.oaow->^miVUWe.-5oopo*«i.ea*        a.Woo\-vnmU\,ov,po>A«4& 


i  F\ftA.-  itv  tWcuWwd  tons. 


I      France  I      \ 

Uouito  I 


5apo.T\  1 


C,V«na  \'o 


1.  Rvjt  -in  rnxUiOfi  toaiV\e\i. 


H.R'xvy&vW- wwi\\v6ifv  ^yjcnA^- 


5.  WVeoX  -  m  mAvion  buiaVvel^ 


to-  C/OT*\-vw  n\iV\von'\au£>Vvet& 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


227 


%    ^T\ei^-\A'w\\l\\ov\  ba^V\elS. 


OnitU  StAlitt  *I0 


iGit.BriUin  »';,  j 


Rwawa  Ift^A 


VJmtea  StcAas  H5 


'\.  OaxTij  Products  -  iw  tVoasavii  \m%-  w  GattAe.  -  \v\  voumd  vmVlxons . 


\)«A«i§UU*fc? 


W  ■  V\«(^%—  iw  round.  >ir\U\ion%. 


U«iUd  States   W 


lSl.Tobo.cco-  \n't>\ouao.irii  torft. 


/\    K  \^\sce\\aneoas. 


RvtitnCL  "tsoo 


\)n\ted  Stoles..  Hi5«oo 


Girmanvj.  55e,«oo 


\^ .  VAom  -  m  evitiS. 


1 


^ 


GeTvnoinij  Wo 


Gtreat  Brittun  i50 


Umttd  States  aso 


\.  lAftY\uWluTes- value  wmiUioniWVin      i.tteviis>paiptTs-cowvi;)a.ToX\Ye.wo»<tWu 
'  \%suEsiAvrviU\ov\a)p\eb  ' 


R^fica 

no 

Europe 

JTt 

F\sia 

S31 

PopuVoilon  tovj  Rates. . 


A.PoipuloUoA  \i^  CoYvUnewts . 


\v\roVA.v\d   vvii\\\ovr&. 


fc.Wea\tV  o\  'jtod-wQ  CoY«»A«c\a\  WoJitrci. 

HAu)v>a\l1  \nyvv\\V\ov\(J(i\\ftT(. 


IrraT\at.     I 
w L 


Qreat  BnUnln 


GeTTworiM 
lis  5 


V3v\'\W  Slates 
aMSO 


1  ^vivi^fc%a»vKa>-'mnullimi«ttaT» 


\)«ited  Slatts 


fc-«sn 

I    Spam  nw      I 

{    \toiij  a.5>M      I 


Citeat  Bt'iWw  3o4) 


Russia     31*7 


ftance    SWO 


J 


"4  RiftKvunl  totmngs.  oj  Vfia!i\v«i  Nations    '    (\  .l^wctDtW:oiV£aifvnfl  ^oiio*^  VO  •  R" wi^e-  ^^^  cafito,  tax  •  w  mfiti 


228 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


0\eocvvv\^V\ouae5>. 

KtWm^ House,  Xs.  (xw  vTOt\luUovyeE.Wo\«.VeA'>3>;4Ww.\ia»te 
dt  Q.aiyvw«erdo.\  «Ato ,  to  vv(Vuti\  oi\  cVvetV^  4tw<a  a-^OYX  We  CaXvi^ 
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mmv\o^\ye,re\iOLdfea-ra»vtei^OiaDu.r\X'i.  ^^  \.Vert\<.  more  depov     /V 


Vorvdon  4l7i» 


R..^^," 

Steppe.  Req'iOt 
11 

Ftitilt  Region 

H.  Lawd  t\rea?i  Classified-- in  vy«\liowsn.iii«.. 

(.EsUmaled.eiacl  area  «0t  Kjvo«A."i 


\fe.  QOYwe  q\^ij  Stva^rs,  -  \vi  tViousand  ^tet. 


\1.  OceQ.Y\  Rrtas>  -  w  w\\\ovv  3t^.w\.  (.EsiwAotei.BUMj,  arean^ot  kwown.') 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


229 


Sio\\lA  \ieepSonv\(^'b.-  m^js*.  (.C.C.Waw^.^ 


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^teted  v»iU  be  Ite  (iee-pesL  bore  on  Uve  co« 
U\(\Eva\\  v\ol  w^Ve  world .  \l  v»os  bei^wm 


Texas  Cession 

37fc.i3i 


V\»tirta  PuirthoJ*  -  from  Spain  l?|<) 


Lou'isiftma.  PiATchase 

Ttom  Frorvce  -  l?Ol 


0,"^i*iTtd  ^TCirvv  Qreal  BrAaJvn  in,  n83 


l^atvoniloUl  -    5.ni.5(o2.  s(j.»aV 


^titr 


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15.  Worlds  Ca.to\e=>  -  iw  lV\ou=)av\d  mWes.. 


Xi.^.'bUUsA.KoA  Voids 


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1.  OuTtoYAYiae.tte.KCeYtus'vjOW.  Bij Decodes.  \y\ million doWirs. 


3M5 


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3S(» 


31fe'/,. 
Ml 


3m  7.. 

3fcS'/„ 


SUM'/, 


fc.  Net  Rec,evpt"b<6 EiipeAivluTe'b  o^  Ihe  U AileA  "states  CttoMernvwent,?.  \ot  Past  Oecade  -  In  miVlioA  dollars- 

■ly\»vu\Wck)\\ftTS., 


lTea?.uTij  Motes, 
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Cow^wviitS)  ■  80 


Slate.  B<x«t^5. 
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GoVlCerti^\coJe.^ 
151 


SvWeTCiert:\\vcalts 
412. 


US.Note'b 
3^5 


National  Banks 


230 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


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1?0 

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950 

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?rpducLs>  WootW.  U»\w\Ui(n\4o\\ari1     Xeartij  aveTO^e 


Vow 

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Ccpper 

Silver. 
33 

Ru'Ottos 

VAtlaUic  Oi-e.=,  Wllv\eii'-uv\w\\UiOv\do\)aTsN  (Yearti^toeTo^e. 


M'AceWaweous. 

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Petroleum 
"6 

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WovimelfXllic  Ores  Wl wed.  >.»amllion  dollars)  Xeaxl^  aveio^e 


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N\ckv\e-n 

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c,>A<^aT  -'\y\  vwXVwrv  'po^«.lr\4^. 


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\J.S  W\ani«<M.WT«.»  m  Oi4»r  oV  «*«*• 


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541 


^e 


"<a\v».t  <!\C«.TtQ:6Kot\s*A  -  w  w^Vvon  lufiasi. 


'\<^    FWeUarimq  Cotton  &Uxtes  -mUvouwuiAb^iti  o^Mo\bi..eatW 


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1^ 

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f  i»&  i.tou4vv\iJ  WHtal  blocte.-  ^itii  iv\  wAUnn  W^Kel^ 


WVwovs  \,^(^ 


Ue.V>TOLS.kQ, 


Kawsois. 


Five  V-tadm^  Corn  Statw 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


231 


\owa 

5 

4 

NewXerk 
3 

a. 

C«.VV\omva 

1 

?v<e.Ua4mciHauPtoAiidv\Q&taUa.    YVeU  m  wUUoin  toms. 


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AT 

M'\cV\vqa.n 
Id) 

>Niscoyttin 

\5 

UV\WOV% 
V5 

\owo. 

Five.  Uead'm^  Potato  9>taUi      '^ieW  iw  million  busheVi. 


MewXorV; 

\ow(x 

Pe¥\v\si/)\vamQ 

\Ui«ovs          OKvO 

f  vje  Leadwq  Da>Tv^  States 


ai5 

UJu'isuiMCl 
132 

Potto  Ricfl 

60 

PK.l|;pi«: 
^0 

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Hi 

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35 

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\owa 

Kav\?.as> 

OVilo 

WUam^ 

Texas 

Fivft  Lcadvnij  Hoa  9r»iv«ciin^  Sules- 


Qacovi 

UavYV 
ai5 

VorK 
>1S 

L^^OTt=,  c4  Ho^  PrtAvAoU  -  m  w\Uiow  pouwda. 


C)0\OTOiAo 

W\owWY\a . 

Rnicna 

\)lftVv 

t^evo^ 

Twe.  SWver  He^xoAS 


CWicaqo 

SLtaa 

OMoya 

Boston 

StLoiCxs 

HIS 

Ottxm 

fcW 

CMm 

Pftckwq  \v\du.s.lTii .  Wo.Hm^  inTWovAsand^. 


40 

GermQWU 
31 

Cowoda 

Bmul 

n 

\owa 

Taxos 

Kansas 

U\mov6 

Uew^ofk. 

five  Leading  Countries  buying  Hoi, 
prodocte  of  rhu  United  States- in  million  'bs- 


OVivo 

Wlov\tciv\a 

'\/Vi^ow\\v\(j 

Oregon 

HewMeiico 

Fwe  Cattle  ttToducwq  Stoles 


?'\ve  &Wt^  oToAwcina  Stales. 


Lake  Stales 

SoutWm 
States 

New 
EnaWnd 
&tal£=> 

States 

FWasXa 

Five.  tjAmloer  Reglovx^. 


232 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


GoVoradb 

GaVi^oTvua 

Wa&ka 

M6V\l<iV\ft 

Twt   Gto\d  ReD\ov\& 


Mov\tavia 

MvtWic\an 

ftnxona 

GaVx^oTAla 

UtaVv 

^vit  Copper  ^eqvons 


fWY\=>ii\vaY\va 

Ul'iwoxs 

VJest 
Vlrqivvlo. 

OVvo 

IWabawa 

T"ive.     Coa.\   Ktojiows 


Wlassac>\vxsetts 

^Wyv^yWanio. 

NtwYoxk 

RiftoittelaM 

Hew3"St>j 

^wft  StaUs  Manu^aclur'mq  Textile  FabV'ies. 


\WnYVSijV 


vavvia 


OWu 


\\\v 


Mevv'toTk 


P'we  \tov\  W\ay\\A.^aclunT\q  States- 


IVwteTSBjj 


?WUadelpV\\a 

§)cV\eviec1.adLi 

V'We.  Car  and  LocomotWe  VJotVs  ■ 


PVv\\ade\pVi,\a. 

SaArroyvcisco 

Ne\«'pOTl 

Qt^eVmd 

BanQor 

rwe,  SK'\p  )ouUd'iv\q  Cenlera 


WewVork 

PeY\y\s.ij\vamoi 

\\\mo\% 

OWo 

Mkuoi^i^ 

IVvt  Fiva  M.os\,  f\)pu.\ou&  9>\,(i.te?> 


New'^ork 

GVv'xcaqo 

?V\Uade\^V\\a 

StUuis. 

BoSlOYl 

Twe  GiTtat  W\airvui\aduLnir«j  Cevdev«> 


8'Ji 

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■^V«,  ^vYtSUUbVwVw<i\Ve.c;Tea.\e&t  wviwtoe.v  yY\\les  o\xa\\i044,-  Cw^wami  niito,) 


?e*\ASxiWaMa 
fell! 

UViwois, 

OVvvo 

TWfc  Ftve '\Aleai\t,Kves»X  'tflcOes,,  -  Vm  wVium  doUarsJ 


UevviYoTk       , 

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?feny\S\i\'<an\a 

0V\0 

\cwa 

"\V\«.YwftUoLA\»\^Sui«s.  \«\\5.iVvt  0^  ftnojl^cftte- 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


233 


STATE    SUPPLEMENT. 


Only  a  Part  of  the  Fam'ly. 


The  State  can  best  be  studied  by  the  progressive 
outline  plan.  Have  pupils  provided  with  an  out- 
line book,  and  take  up  the  work  according  to  the 
following  plan,  using  a  page  or  more  for  each  topic 
named. 

Each  pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  bring  in  sup- 
plemental facts.  This  not  only  enriches  the  work, 
but  cultivates  a  spirit  of  investigation. 


I.  State  Boundaries. 

1.  Draw  in  books,  outline  of  State,  and  prop- 
erly name  and  locate  its  geographical  bounda- 
ries. 

II.  Counties  of  your  Congressional  District. 

1.  Plat  and  locate  in  State,  the. counties  in 
your  own  Congressional  District.  •; 


Too  much  Corn  for  his  Cribs. —  Rice  County,   Kansas. 


234 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


One  way  to  Compound  Interest  —  in  Kansas. 


2.  Discuss  the  legislative,  executive  and  judi- 
cial arms  of  your  Federal  Government. 

III.   Counties  of  jour  State  Senatorial  and  Rep- 
resentative Districts. 

1.  Plat  and  locate  in  State  the  district  that 
elects  vour  Representative  and  the  district 
that  elects  your  Senator  to  the  Legislature. 

2.  Discuss  the  legislative,  executive  and  judi- 
cial arms  of  vour  State  Government. 


lY.    Rivers  of  State. 

1.    Kame  and  locate  in  map  form. 

V.  Cities  of  First  Class. 

1.  Xame  and  locate  all  cities  of  first  class  in 
your  State. 

2.  What  industrial  plants  are  located  in  these 
cities  ? 

VI.  Twenty-five    most    important    Second-    and 
Third-Class  Cities. 


Harvesting  the  Season's  third  Alfalfa  Crop. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY, 


235 


Outline   Map    of  Kansas. 

Including  Counties, County  Seats  and  Lines  of  the  SANTA  FE  ROUTE. 

j  "I''*"1-1N6  NORTOKJ    »>iUi^(«.rs|  s  M  I   T  N   |  J  E  WELL 


t 


».««ior.  ur,,,,,   ,^^^^^^^, 1^^ 


1.   Xame  and  locate  each  one  on  a  drawn  map. 

VII.  Educational  Institutions. 
1.   Xame,  locate,  and  describe. 

VIII.  Benevolent  Institutions. 
1.   Xame,  locate,  and  describe. 

IX.  Penal  Institutions. 

1.   Xame,  locate,  and  describe. 

X.  Railroad  Lines  crossing  the  State. 

1.  On  State  outline,  trace  one  road  at  a  time. 

2.  Have  a  separate  page  for  each  railroad,  so 
that  each  line  may  be  clearly  shown  without 
its  competitors  for  trade. 

3.  Locate  all  the  important  cities  along  the 
line  of  road  in  the  State. 

4.  In  Kansas  a  separate  page  and  a  separate 
State  outline  map  should  be  used  for  the  fol- 
lowing lines: 

(a)  Santa  Fe. 

(&)  Union  Pacific. 

(c)  Missouri  Pacific. 

(d)  Eock  Island. 

(e)  Missouri,  Kansas  &  Texas. 

(/)  "Frisco"  (St.  Louis  &  San  Francisco, 
including  the  newly  acquired  Memphis 
Route). 


XL  Railroad  Map  of  State. 

XII.  Agricultural,  Mineral  and  Industrial  Sta- 
tistics for  the  State. 

XIII.  History  of  State. 

1.  First  settlement.     When  ?    Where  ? 

2.  When  organized  as  a  Territory? 

3.  When  admitted  as  a  State  ? 

4.  Xames   of   persons   instrumental   in   early 
State  development. 

5.  Most  important  incidents  and  facts  in  State's 
history.     (Limit  to  five.) 

Kansas    Summary. 

Kansas  is  forty  years  old. 

With  her  more  than  fifty  million  acres  of  fertile 
land  she  can  furnish  good  homes  for  many  times 
the  people  now  numbered  among  the  Kansans. 

The  Kansas  hen  in  three  years  gives  her  owners 
more  money  than  the  whole  Louisiana  Purchase 
cost  this  nation  of  ours  —  $15,000,000. 

The  "  family  cow  "  each  year  furnishes  enough 
milk,  butter  and  cheese  to  supply  the  500,000  school 
children  of  Kansas  with  their  school  books  and 
give  each  of  our  State  and  denominational  colleges 
a  $150,000  endowment  fund. 


236 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


How  Wheat  grows  in  Kansas. 


Kansas  has  twelve  million  bearing  fruit  trees 
and  13,000  acres  of  luscious  grapes  and  berries. 

The  "  busy  bee "  supplies  us  with  one  and  a 
half  million  pounds  of  the  best  honej  every  two 
years. 

The  whole  nation  is  astonished  at  Kansas'  1900 
record  of  77,000,000  bushels  of  wheat,  135,000,000 
bushels  of  corn,  30,000,000  bushels  of  oats,  7,500,- 
000  bushels  of  potatoes,  50,000  pounds  of  cotton, 
1,500,000  bushels  of  flax,  18,500,000  bushels  of 
broom-corn,  5,000,000  tons  of  hay  and  fodder  crops, 
and  $75,000,000  worth  of  dressed  meats. 

Kansas  points  proudly  to  her  immeasurable  beds 
of  building-stone,  zinc,  lead,  gypsum,  brick-clay, 
coal,  oil,  and  gas. 

The  statistician  says  that  Kansas  has  the  largest 
salt  plant,  the  largest  smelter,  the  most  extensive 
cement  plant,  the  very  finest  brick,  and  the  largest 
apple  orchard  in  the  world. 

We  have  6000  churches,  9200  free  public  schools, 
490  banks  with  $51,000,000  surplus  deposited, 
9000  miles  of  railway,  and  good  wagon-roads 
everywhere. 

We  now  number  one  and  one-half  millions  of 
contented,    happy    people    who    know    Whittier's 


"  Song  of  the  Kansas  Emigrant,"  and  whose  chil- 
dren sing  with  Ironquill : 

"  We  all  believe  in  Kansas :  she 's  our  State, 
With  all  the  elements  to  make  her  great  — 
Young  men,  high  hopes,  proud  dreams — 'tis  ours  to  see 
The  State  succeed  to  what  the  State  should  be." 


Kansas    Statistics. 

Population. 

1.  State 1,468,808 

2.  Five  most  populous  counties,  in  round  num- 

bers: 

1.  Wyandotte 74,000 

2.  Shawnee    56,000 

3.  Sedgwick 44,000 

4.  Leavenworth 40,000 

5.  Crawford 40,000 

3.  Twenty-five  largest  cities,  in  order  of  rank : 

1.  Kansas  City 53,625 

2.  Topeka    38,067 

3.  Wichita .    24,472 

4.  Leavenworth 22,392 

5.  Atchison    16,617 

6.  Pittsburg ; 12,676 

7.  Lawrence 11,358 

8.  Fort  Scott 10,751 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


237 


Growing  a  Bank  Account  in   Kansas. 


9.  Hutchinson 10,009 

10.  Emporia    9,477 

11.  Parsons 8,477 

12.  Galena 8,017 

13.  Ottawa 7,447 

14.  Arkansas  City 7,045 

15.  Tola   6,787 

16.  Salina 6,657 

17.  Winfield 6,571 

18.  Xewton   6,525 

19.  Argentine    6,515 

20.  Independence    5,628 

21.  Coffejville 5,259 

22.  Chanute 4,953 

23.  Junction  City 4,889 

24.  Wellington    4,406 

25.  Concordia    4,008 

11.   Area. 

1.  State 52,000,000  acres. 

Breadth   210  miles. 

Length 400  miles. 

2.  Largest  county  —  Butler  —  contains  913,920 

acres. 

3.  Smallest  county — Wyandotte — contains  97,- 

920  acres. 
How  many  square  miles  in  each  of  these  counties  ? 

4.  Altitude  — 

Eastern  limit  750  feet  above  sea-level. 
Western   limit    at   Colorado   line    3300   feet 
above  sea-level. 


III.  Weather  Eeport  —  averages  from  U.  S. 
Weather  Service  for  Kansas  for  14  years. 

1.  Temperature  — 

Average  temperature  for  December,  January, 

February,  31°  F. 
Average  temperature  for  June,  July,  August, 

76.3°  F. 
Average  annual  temperature  for  the   State, 

54.1°  F. 

2.  Precipitation  of  moisture  — 

Average  precipitation  for  December,  January, 

February,  0.96  inch. 
Average  precipitation  for  each  of  the  months 

June,  July,  August,  3.22  inches. 
Average  annual  precipitation  for  the  eastern 

third  of  State,  34  inches. 
Average  annual  precipitation  for  entire  State, 

26.17  inches. 

IV.  Distances  from  Kansas  City,  Kansas,  the 
State's  chief  commercial  center,  to  the  chief 
centers  of  domestic  commerce.  miea. 

Omaha 205 

St.  Louis 283 

Chicago 458 

Buffalo 1017 

..Baltimore    1217 

Pittsburg    896 

Philadelphia   1250 

A^ew  York 1345 

Boston   1504 


238 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Miles. 

Savannah 1081 

Kew  Orleans 878 

Galveston •. 790 

Denver 640 

San  Francisco 2100 

Seattle 2234 

V.  Commercial    Products    in    round    numbers  — 
1900. 
(Taken  from  Secretary  F.  D.  Goburn's  reports.) 

1.  Products  of  live  stock,  value.  .  .$88,000,000 

2.  Farm  crops,  quantity —  .     susheu. 

Wheat 77,000,000 

Corn 134,000,000 

Oats    30,000,000 


Bnshela. 

Broom  corn 18,500,000 

Barley 3,300,000 

Potatoes,  Irish 7,500,000 

Flax    1,500,000 

Hay  crop  (tame,  tons) 1,200,000 

Hay  crop  (prairie,  tons) 1,400,000 

Total  value  of  all  farm  crops,  $113,300,000. 

3.  Garden   vegetables    and   horticultural   prod- 
ucts, $1,500,000. 

4.  Mineral  products,  $18,000,000. 

5.  Average  annual  value  of  commercial  prod- 
ucts at  present  time  (1902),  $190,000,000. 

6.  Total  value  of  agricultural  products  alone, 
from  1882  to  1901  inclusive  $2,750,000,000. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


239 


PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY. 


Abercorn,  ab'-er-korn 
Aconcagua,  a-kon-ka^-gwa 
Admiralty,  ad'-mi-rar-ti 
Aleppo,  a-lep^-o 
Allahabad,  al-a-ha-bad' 
Amsterdam,  am'-ster-dam 
Amur,  a-moor' 
Angelus,  an^-jel-iis 
Apia,  a^-pe-a 
Argentine,  ar^-jen-tln 
Arkansas,  ar'kan-sa^ 
Asafoetida,  as'-a-fet^-i-da 
Atbara,  at-ba^-ra 
Auckland,  ak'-land 
Bagamoyo,  b^g-a-mo'-yo 
Bahia,  ba-e'-a 
Baikal,  bi-kar 
Baireuth,  bi^-roit 
Baku,  ba-koo' 
Ballarat,  bal-a-rat' 
Balkash,  baK-kash' 
Baluchistan,  bal-oo-chis-tan' 
Banca,  bank'-a 
Bangalore,  ban'-ga-lor' 
Barre,  bar'-re 
Bassorah,  bas^-6-ra 
Bathurst,  bath'-erst 
Bayohne,  ba-yon'; 

FrJ^a'-yiin' 
Beirut,  ba^-root 
Benares,  ben-a^-rez 
Bokhara,  bok-a^-ra 
Bolivia,  bo-liv'-i-a 
Bologna,  bo-lon'-ya 
Bornholm,  born^-holm 
Brahmaputra,  bra'-ma-poo'- 

tra 
Bucharest,  bu^-ka-rest' 
Buda  Pesth,  boo'-do-pSst 
Buenos  Aires,  bwa^-nos-I-rez 
Cairo  (Afr.),  ki^-ro 
Cairo  (111.),  ka'-ro 
Calais,  kaK-is,  Fr.  ka-la' 
Carysfort,  kar^-is-fort 
Caucasus,  ka'-ka-siis 
Chelan,  che^-lan' 
Cheliabinsk,  chel-ya-binsk^ 
Chemnitz,  kem'-nits 
Cinchona,  sm-ko'-na 
Demavend,  dem-a-vend^ 
Dungeness,  diinj-nes' 
Esquimault,  es'-ke-malt 
Fernshaw,  fern'-shg, 


Flourine,  flour '-in 
Fusiyama,  foo-zi-a'-ma 
Gamboge,  gam-boj' 
Grioucester,  glos'-ter 
Guayaquil,  gwl'-a-kel 
Haidarabad,  hl-da-ra-bad' 
Haiti,  ha'-ti 

Halemaumau,  hal-e-ma'-ma 
Hawaii,  ha-wi'-e 
Himalaya,  him-a'-la-ya 
Hoang,  ho-ang' 
Honolulu,  ho-no-loo'-loo 
Hugli,  hoo'-gle 
Iconium,  i-ko'-ni-iim 
Irkutsk,  ir-kootsk' 
Jaipur,  ji'-poor 
Jinrikisha,  jm-rik'-i-sha 
Juan  de  Fuca,  hoo-an'-da- 

foo'-ka 
Kamehameha,  kam-e-ham'- 

e-ha 
Kars,  kars 
Kauri,  ka'-u-re 
Karwau-Baschi,  kar'-wa- 
bas'-M 
Kenia,  ke'-ni-a 
Kharkoff,  kar-kof' 
Khartoum,  kar-toom' 
Kiakhta,  ke-ak'-ta 
Kieff,  kf -ef 
Kiel,  kel 

Kilauea,  ke-low-a'-a 
Kilimanjaro,  kil-e-man'-ja-ro' 
Kioto,  ke-o'-to 
Kirghiz,  kir-gez' 
Kiushiu,  ke-6o-she-6o 
Kobe,  ko'-ba 
Kongo,  kon'-go 
Koniah,  ko'-ne-a 
Kootenai,  koot'-e-na 
Krasnoyarsk,  kras'-no-yarsk' 
Kurgan,  koor'-gan 
Kuroshiwo,  koo'-ro-she'-wo 
Ladoga,  lad'-6-ga 
La  Mancha,  la-man'-cha 
Liau-Tong,  le'-ow-tong' 
Liege,  li-azh' 
Lille,  lei 

Linnaeus,  lin-e'-tis 
Madeira,  ma-de'-ra 
Madras,  ma-dras' 
Magdeburg,  mag'-de-boorg' 
Maguey,  ma-gwa'' 


Maimatchin,  ml-ma-chen' 
Mandelay,  man'-de-la 
Manihot,  man'-i-hot 
Manila,  ma-nir-a 
Martinique,  mar-ti-nek' 
Matterhorn,  ma'-ter-horn 
Mauna  Loa.  mow'-na-lo'-a 
Maui,  mow  -e 
Mauritius,  ma-rish'-i-iis 
Mechlin,  mek'-lm 
Mecklenburg,  mek'-len-burg 
Micronesia,  mi-kro-ne'shi-a 
Minots,  mi'-nots 
Mocha,  mo'-ka 
Moii,  mo-e 
Molokai,  mo-lo'-ki 
Molucca,  mo-liik'-ka 
Mombasa,  mom-bas'-a 
Munich,  mti'-nik 
Nagoya,  na-goi''-a 
Nelson-Saskatchewan,  nel'- 

son-sas-kach'-e-wgn 
Nemain,  ni-man' 
Netherlands,  neth'-er-landz 
Nevskii  Prospekt,  nev'ski 

pros'-pekt 
Nikolskoe,  ne-kol'-ske 
Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha,  nV- 

pon  ii-zen  ka-i-sha 
Novgorod,  nov'-go-rod 
Oaxaca,  wa-ha'-ka 
Oahu,  o-a'-hoo 
Orinoco,  o-ri-no'-ko 
Orizaba,  o-re-tha'-ba 
Pago-Pago,  pa'-go  pa'-go 
Panama,  pan-a-ma' 
Peiho,  pa-ho' 
Pribilof,  pre-be-16v' 
Pulque,  pur-ka 
Riga,  re  -ga 
Rubens,  roo'-benz 
Sahama,  sa-ha'ma 
Saigon,  sa-e-gon' 
Samoan,  sa-mo'-an 
Savaii,  sa-vi'-e 
Shimonoseki,  shim'-o-no- 

sek-e 
Stuttgart,  stoot'-gart 
Tabriz,  ta-brez' 
Tanganyika,  tan-gan-ye'-ka 
Tashkent,  tash-k§nt' 
Tchad,  chad 
Tobol,  to-bSr 


240 

COMMERCIAL .  GEOGRAPHY. 

Tobolsk,  to-bolsk' 

Vladivostok,  vla-de-vos-tok' 

Yenisei,  yen-e-sa'-e 

Triest,  tre-est' 

Wallaby,  wol'-la-by 

Yei-ba  Mate,  yer'-ba-ma-ta' 

Tripoli,  ti'ip^-o-li 

Wenatchee,  we-nach'-e 

Yokohama,  yo-ko-ha^-ma 

Tsitsika,  tset'-ske 

Woonsocket,  w6on'-s6k-et 

Ypres,  e^-pr 

Tunka,  ttin-ka' 

Yakuts,  ya^-koots 

Zambesi,  zam-be'-ze 

Uganda,  u-gan'-da 
Ujiji,  oo-je  -je 

Yang  tse  Kiang,  yang'  tse 

Zanzibar,  zan^-zi-bar 

ke-ang' 

Zermalt,  zer-malt' 

Verkhoyarsk,  verk-ho-yarsk' 

Yawatu  Maru,  ya-wa'-too- 

Zurich,  zoo^-rik 

Vladimir,  vla-de^-mer 

ma-roo' 

Zuyder  Zee,  zl'-der  ze 

COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


241 


INDEX. 


A. 

Fage. 

A  bonanza  wheat  farm,   description  of 89 

Abyssinia,  greatest  exports  of;  greatest  imports  of;  na- 
tional counters    216 

Academies  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  St.  Petersburg 133 

A  century  of  United  States  commerce 229 

Acid  tanning,  method  of 186 

Acknowledgments 4 

A  commercial  trip  around  the  world 73-145 

Across  the  Eastern  Continent 122-135 

Admiralty  Headlight ;   Inlet 96 

Afghanistan,  greatest  exports  of;  greatest  imports  of; 

national  counters  of 217 

A  four-track  railroad 75 

Africa,  commercial  countries  of 216 

Agave,  time  to  mature;  why  called  century  plant 178 

Aids  to  commerce 9-70 

Agricultural  pyramids   226,  227 

A  hurricane  at  sea 142 

Alabama,  coal  of 152 

Alabama,  pig  iron  of ;  steel 154 

Alaskan  Railway ;  a  remarkable  enterprise 27 

Alaskan  Commercial  Company 184 

Alaska,  gold  of   156 

Albany 75 

"Albany  Gateway,"  a  business  center 75 

Albatross,  a  South-Sea  bird;  endurance  of 105 

A  leper  colony  99 

Algeria,  greatest  exports  of;  greatest  imports  of;   na- 
tional  counters  of 216 

Allan  Line 205 

Allspice,  definition  of;  why  so  called;  yield  of,  per  tree,  176 

Alster  Basin 137 

Aluminum,  where  found 157 

Amber 137 

American  cities,  facts  about ;  number  of  . 220-222 

American  consumption  of  chocolate 178 

American  constil,  salary  of 55 

American  cotton,  where  sold 181 

American  Fur  Company,  origin  of 184 

American  Line 205 

American  locomotive,  the  first 25 

American  schools  in  the  Philippines  .'. 117 

Amgoon,  description  of 125 

Amount  of  food  elements 19 

Amsinck  Line    205 

Amsterdam,  canal  of   68 

Amur    124 

Amur  and  Shilka  river  boats 125 

Amur  river,  buoys  of 125 

description  of 125 

woodpiles  of  125 

Anaconda  mines    155 

Anchor   Line    205 

An  express  train  explained 39 

Angora    river    128 

Aniline 160 

Anise  seed    182 

Annual  earnings  of  leading  nations 227 

Anthracite  coal,  when  first  used 151 

Antwerp  a  distributing  point 138 

docks  of 138 


Page. 

-^PJa     101 

Apple,  America's  finest  fruit    172 

products   of    172 

commerce  of  United  States 173 

customers,    best     173 

crop  of    172 

exports  of   1821   and   1900 172 

native   of    172 

orchard,  largest   172  173 

regions,  greatest   173 

regions   of   world 172,  173 

trees,  soil  required 172,  173 

Apricots    174 

Arabia,  greatest  exports  of 217 

greatest  imports  of 217 

national   counters    of 217 

Area  of  nations  compared  —ith  United  States  as  a  unit,  201 

Argentine    149 

Argentine  Republic,  greatest  exports  of 215 

greatest  imports   of 215 

national  counters  of ' 215 

Arizona  figs   172 

gold  of   156,  157 

Arkwright's  spinning-frame.  efi"ect  on  cotton 180 

Aromatic  herbs  of  medicinal  value 182 

A  Russian  fair,  commercial  features  of 131 

Asafcetida,  uses  of 160 

where    found    160 

Ashland,  an  ore  port 154 

Asia,  commercial  countries  of 217 

Asiatic  journey,  length  of 132 

•Asphalt   215 

Assiout  sluices,  number 189 

weir,  construction  of 189 

Assarian  dam,  construction  of 189 

Astoria,   founding  of 184 

Atbara  bridge  made  of  Amer'can  iron 29 

Atlantic  and  Mexican  Gulf  Steamship  Co.  Line 206 

Atlantic  cable,  how  made 36 

rate  of  speed  when  laid 56 

when  successfully  laid 36 

Atlantic  cargo,  west-bound  52 

Atlantic  coast  steamers,  number  of 207 

Atlantic  hurricanes,  origin 143 

times  when  most  frequent 143 

Atlantic  passage,  cost  of 48 

Atlantic  passenger  lines,  cost  of  voyage 142 

Atlantic  routes,  northern 49 

southern    49 

Atlantic  sailing-vessels,  number  of 207 

Atlantic  voyage,  log  of 51 

Atlas  Line    207 

Auckland,  docks  of 107 

harbor  of 107 

Auditing    department    of    a    railroad    vs.    Government 

auditing  department    26 

Australia,  gold  and  silver  of 157,  158 

gold  mines 110 

greatest   exports   of 218 

greatest  imports  of 218 

national  counters  of 218 

Australasia,   commercial  countries  of 218 


242 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


Australian  Alps,  description  of 108,  110 

Australian  central  Plateau 109 

Australian  exports 113 

Australian  Federal  Government,  description  of Ill 

Australian  meat  refrigerators   113 

Australian  plant-life  conditions 110 

Australian  railways   109' 

Austria,  greatest  exports  of 213 

greatest  imports   of 213 

national  counters  of 213 

steel   154 

Austria-Hungary,    coal 152 

Austrian  colonies,  number  of 197 

A  wheat  farm,  seeding  of 89 

A  winter  voyage  across  the  Atlantic 135-145 

Average  per  cent,  of  tax  of  leading  nations 227 

Average  yearly  earnings  per  capita  of  leading  nations .  .  227 

B. 

Babylon,  royal  canal  of 68 

Badger 185 

Bagdad  caravan.  The  22 

"Bahama  Steamship  Co.  Line 206 

Bahr  Yussuf 188 

Baker,  Sir  Benjamin,  architect 189 

Balance  of  trade,  meaning  of  term 10 

Balsam,  native  of  183 

Balsam  of  tolu 161 

Baltic  and  North  sea  canals,  description  of 69 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad  a  pioneer 25 

Bamboo  cities    169 

Bamboo,  definition  of 168 

prevents  a  famine 168 

uses  of 168 

seeds   edible    168 

species  of   168 

Banana  cloth   172 

Bananas,   where  grown 172 

Banana  tree,  character  of 172 

Banda   sea    115 

Banking   capital  classified 229 

Baobab  mallows    183 

Barge  farms  of  Russia,  description  of 129 

Barley,   latitudes    167 

native  of   167 

production  by  nations   227 

regions    of    167 

Barometer,  invention  of   207 

Bark  and  herb  market 183 

Barks  of  more  value  than  gold 160 

Bark  products   159 

Basket  factory,  location  of  174 

Bass  strait  112 

Bathurst  wheat  region 108 

Battleship   "  Nebraska  "    96 

Bayberry  tree,  native  of 176 

value  to  commerce 176 

Bear     185 

Beaver    185 

Beavers'  fur,  uses  of 185 

Beaver  Tail  Light 57 

Bedloe's  Island   49 

Beef  regions   15 

Bees   and  buckwheat 167 

Beet  of  commerce   171 

Beet-sugar  factories,  capacity  of 171 

■where  located    ; 171 


Beet-sugar  regions    jg 

Beet  sugar  of  the  world le 

Belgian  and  Dutch  lace  of  flax igl 

Belgium,  compared  to  Maryland 138 

canals  of   133 

capital  of    133 

coal  of 154 

greatest  exports  of 213 

greatest  imports  of 213 

minerals  of 133 

national   counters   of 213 

sea-coast  of    133 

steel   154 

Belladonna    182 

Belladonna  root i83 

Belle  Island,  its  horticultural  beauty 81 

Benevolent  institutions  of  the  State,  plan  of  study 235 

Bermuda  onions    215 

Bessemer  process,  explanation 153 

value  of 153 

when    introduced    153 

Beverage  family   177-179 

"  Big  Bend  Country,"  description  of 91 

Big  Fiji    105 

Birmingham.  Alabama,  its  iron  industries 155 

Bismuth,  date  of  discovery 149 

Bituminous  coal,  why  so  called 150 

distribution  of 150 

Blackberry    174 

Black  bread    165 

made  of  rye 1(57 

Black-pepper  commerce  115 

Black  Rock  Beacon go 

Blagovestchensk.  description  of 125 

Blakely  Harbor  lumber  mill 94 

Blast  furnace,  how  charged 155 

how  made   155 

influence   of    155 

Blue  ATountains,  description  of 108 

Bluff  Harbor   IQ7 

Blue  gum 182 

Boffslof   Aolcano    196 

Bolivia,  greatest  exports  of 215 

greatest  imports   of 215 

national  counters  of 215 

Bonilla  Point 97 

Boot  and  shoe  industry  in  United  States 186 

Boot  and  shoe  market  of  our  nation 187 

Bornholm,  a  mid-Baltic  island 137 

Boston,  a  commercial  port IQ 

a  live-stock  port   73 

coast  trade  of 73 

commerce,  total  foreign 73 

exports  of 73 

harbor  deepening  of 73 

imports  of 73 

the  depot  of  commerce  for  New  England 9' 

steam  tonnage  of    73 

water  commerce,  influence  on  railroads 73 

Boston  to  Buffalo   .  .  . 73-79 

Boston  Light   57  \ 

Boxers   124 

Brant  Point  Light 57 

Brazil  coffee  in  commerce 179 

Brazil,  greatest  exports  of 215 

greatest  imports  of 215 

national  counters  of 215 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


243 


Brazilian  arrow-root,  how  obtained 171 

Brazil  nut    182 

Breakfast  under  difficulties   142 

Bread  fruit,  description  of 103 

Bread  fruit  tree,  value  of  103 

Breadstuflfs,  our  nation's  order  of  national  sales 19 

Brisbane,  description  of   114 

British  colonies,  number  of 197 

British  consul,  salary   55 

British  Fishguard  Light 96 

Brussels  lace,  manufacture  of 138 

value  of 138 

Buckwheat,  why  so  called 167 

kernel,  value  of 168 

flowers,  for  bees    167 

uses   of    168 

value  of 167 

Buckwheat  regions  of  the  world 168 

BuflFalo  (city ) ,  description  of 78 

Buffalo  (animals) ,  disappearance  of 90 

Building  a  modern  steamer 45 

Bureau   of   Telegraphy,  codified  cost   of   international 

messages   35 

Butte,  a  large  mining-camp  90 

Butte  mines  155 

c. 

Cabinet  woods  in  Luzon 117 

Cable  first  laid  in  Europe 36 

Cable  first  spoken  of  in  1795 35 

Cablegrams,  cost  of 37 

speed    37 

Cable  mileage  for  world 36 

Cable  projected  across  Pacific 36 

Cables,  total  for  the  world 36 

Cacao,  tree,  description  of 178 

best  region  of 178 

bean   178 

character  of  fruit 178 

nibs    178 

Cactus  group,  number  of  species 182 

Cairo  caravan.  The 21 

Cairo  dam,  influence  of   189 

Calais    139 

Caledonian  Canal,  description  of 69 

Calfskin  leather    186 

Calcium,  date  of  discovery 149 

California,  gold  of   156 

silver  of 157 

Calumet  mines 155 

Camel,  why  chosen  for  caravans 22 

Cameron  Line    206 

Camp  Bird  mines,  yield  of 156 

Camphor,  definition  of 161 

how  obtained   161 

Camphor  tree,  where  grown 163 

Canada  and  Newfoundland,  steam  connections  with  the 

United  States 205 

Canada,  Atlantic  and  Plant  Steamship  Company  Line,  204 

Canada  Pacific  Steamship  Company  Line 205 

Canada,  greatest  exports  of  213 

greatest  imports  of 213 

national  counters  of 213 

coal  of  153 

geld  of 156 

balsam,  use  of   160 

balsam,  where  obtained  160 


Canada  hemp 182 

lumber  162 

pulp  mills 162 

saw  mills    162 

Canals,  origin  of 68 

Canal  locks,  invention  of 68 

largest  in  the  world 69 

Cane  sugar  of  world 16 

Cane-sugar  regions  16-168 

Canned  goods  of  America 174 

Canning  factories,  location  of   174 

Caoutchouc,  definition  of 159 

how  obtained  159 

regions'of  the  world 160 

where  obtained 159 

Cape  Colony,  greatest  exports  of 215 

greatest  imports  of 215 

national  counters  of 215 

Cape  Flattery 97 

Cape  Flattery  Light 97 

Cape  Henlopen  Light 57 

Cape  Nome  gold  fields 156 

Cape  to  Cairo  Railroad,  bridges  of ■. 29 

divisions  of 29 

route  of  29 

the  spirit  of  African  commerce 30 

Cape  Tribulation 114 

Cape  York 114 

Capsicum,  native  of  176 

number  of  species  176 

where  cultivated    177 

Caravan,  an  important  vehicle  of  commerce 21 

origin  of   21 

routes  of  Eastern  World 21 

time  table 22 

trade  of  Russian  empire 22 

Caraway   182 

Carboniferous  age 150 

Carmanah  Point 97 

Carpet-bag  express   38 

Cars,  classified ". 26 

Carysfort  Reef  Light 60 

Cascade  tunnel,  description  of 92 

a  triumph  of  engineering  skill  in  railroad  build- 
ing         27 

Cassava  bread,  how  made 171 

how  obtained  171 

Cast  iron,  how  made 153 

Castle  Garden   48 

Castle  William    49 

Castor  beans    183 

Cathedral  of  Antwerp,  chimes  of 138 

collection  of  paintings   138 

Cattle,  by  nations  227 

Cavite    118 

Cayenne  pepper  214 

how  obtained  177 

how  used 177 

not  a  pepper    176 

volatile  liquid  of 177 

why  so  called 176 

Cebu 116 

Celery,  bleaching  of  176 

center  of  our  nation 175 

number  of  crops  yearly 176 

uses  of 175 

Center  of  tea  trade 118 


244 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Central  America,  sulphur  of 159 

Cereal  production  of  the  United  States  compared  with 

other  nations   19 

Cereals,  classified    164 

for  what  used 1G4 

where  grown 164 

of  the  tnited  States,  value  of 230 

Chabarovska  express    123 

Charleston  main  light  57 

Chemulpu,  Korea's  principal  port 122 

Cherbourg  harbor   140 

Cherries     IM 

Chicago  a  great  inland  port 10 

Chicago  drainage  canal   70 

Chief  occupations  in  the  Philippines 117 

Chief  duties  of  consul 54 

Chile,  greatest  exports  of 215 

greatest  imports  of    215 

national  counters  of 215 

nitrates  of 157 

Chiliabinsk   130 

China,  coal  of 163 

greatest  exports  of 217 

greatest  imports  of 217 

national  counters  of  217 

imperial  canal  of - 68 

national  plant  of 168 

Chinese  colonies,  number  of  197 

Chinese  traders  in  Philippines 116 

Chinook,  center  of  irrigation  region 90 

Chita    126 

Chocolate,  a  Mexican  name 178 

how  adulterated    18 

how   obtained    17,  178 

mills,  the  greatest 178 

Christ's  Church  ' 107 

Chronometer,  explanation   51 

Cinchona,  of  commerce,  where  obtained 159 

bark   216 

bark,  use  of 159 

tree,  an  evergreen 159 

tree,  nature  of   159 

Cinnamon,  definition  of 176 

how   prepared    176 

port  of  world 176 

regions,  where  grown   176 

tree,   description    176 

Citadel  Island   133 

Cities,  population  of  219,  220 

Cities  of  State,  plan  of  study 233 

City  of  the  Kremlin 130 

Clallam  forest,  country  of 97 

Classes  of  cars,  cost  of 26 

Clay  products,  classified   157 

Clearing  house,  explanation  of 228 

Clearing  house  of  Oriental  and  Occidental  trade 118 

Clearing  houses  of  the  world,  with  an  annual  billion- 
dollar  exchange  228 

Clermont,  dimensions  of   42 

trial  trip  on  the  Hudson  river 42 

Cleveland,  description  of    80 

docks  of 80 

Light,  origin  of  Prof.  Bliss's  lighthouse  song. ...  80 

ship-building  of 80 

Climate  of  Australia   Ill 

Cloth  from  American  cotton 178 

Cloth  from  Brazilian  cotton   178 


Cloves,  definition  of 176 

how  obtained   176 

nature  of 176 

oil  of   176 

tree,  size  of   176 

world  supply  of   176 

Clyde  Line   206 

Coal  and  modern  industries  151 

Coal,  cheap  transportation  of 152 

definition  of 150 

distribution  of 150 

fields  of  Australia   113 

industry  and  index 151 

industry,  development  of   151 

industry  of  world   151 

inflammable  substances  of 151 

kinds  of 150 

machinery  of  transportation 154 

mining  in  China   152 

nations  of  the  world,  rank  of 152 

origin  of   150 

production  by  nations 225 

production,  first  order   152 

production,  second  order 152 

production,  third  order   153 

shafts 151 

transportation    151 

uses  of 150 

trade  of  Boston  vs.  New  York 73 

Cochineal  insect,  value  of 182 

Cocoa  butter,  how  obtained   178 

uses  of 178 

Cocoanut  palm,  fruit 170 

rank  in  familv 170 

utility  of    . .  ■ 170 

Cocoanuts.  chief  source  of  our  supply 170 

Cocoa  shells,  what  they  are 178 

C.  O.  D.  explained  39 

Coffee,  fruits  and  nuts,  etc 18 

Coflfee,  character  of  tree 177 

of  commerce,  how  obtained 177 

in  commerce   177 

latitude  in  growth   177 

leaves,  use  of   177 

long  known  in  commercial  world 177 

mart  of  world   178 

origin  of  name 177 

per  capita 17 

regions     17 

tree,  amount  of  care  required 177 

cost  of.  at  bearins 177 

tree,  fruit  described   177 

tree,  period  of  fr>.itage 177 

tree,  vield  of  coffee  beans 177 

Coins  of  commercial  realms 211,  212 

Coinage,  first  silver   212 

first  sold 212 

Coke,  how  made 151 

Coke  ovens   154 

Cold  storage,  influence  on  fruit  commerce '.....  173 

Colombia,  greatest  exports  of 215 

greatest  imports  of 215 

national  counters  of 215 

Colonies  of  Africa,  names  of  If'S 

Colonies  of  Asia,  names  of 1^7 

Colonies  of  Australia,  names  of 198 

Colonial  dependencies  and  protectorates  of  the  world.  .  197 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


245 


Colonies  of  Europe,  names  of 197 

Colonies  of  North  America,  names  of 197 

Colorado,  gold  of 156 

pig  iron  of 154 

silver   of    •  •  •  157 

steel  of 154 

Commerce,  defined 9 

in  cut  flowers 183 

in  yerba  mate 178 

mineral    149-15(5 

kinds   of    9 

of  Australia,  per  capita 113 

of  Great  Britain,  per  capita 113 

of  Kobe 120 

origin  of 9 

question  summary 13 

Commercial  agent,  definition  of 54 

Commercial  agents  of  the  United  States,  number  of ...  .  54 

Commercial  city,  how  developed 9 

Commercial  freighters  to  Honolulu 96 

Commercial  museum,  purpose  of 190 

Commercial  plants,  number  of 164 

use  of 164 

Commercial  relations  of  the  United  States  to  her  terri- 
torial possessions 200 

Commodore  Stenfeldt,  commercial  work  of 122 

Comparative  area  of  nations 201 

Coney  Light 49 

Congressional  act  of  1878,  its  effect  on  the  life-saving 

service   65 

Congressional  committee  of  1851 58 

Conies    185 

Connecticut,  pig  iron  of   154 

Consignment  plan,  explained   o9 

Consular  service,  of  Austria 55 

of  England   55 

of  France   55 

of  Germany   55 

of  Italy  55 

graded   53 

salaries    55 

Consular  system,  origin  of 53 

Consul,  definition  of 53 

duties  of   54 

general  duties  of 54 

Consuls,  by  whom  appointed 53 

Consuls-general,  number  of    54 

Consul  service  of  the  United  States,  how  established.  . .  53 

Continents,  length  of  coast  line 228 

mean  height  of 228 

Oopal     161 

Copper  and  tin  alloys   155 

Copper,  distribution  155 

heavy  blocks  of   155 

importance  of 155 

native    155 

production  of.  in  the  United  States 155 

richest  mines  of 155 

qualities   of    155 

the  first  metal  used 155 

u.ses  of 155 

Copper  Harbor    86 

Copper  mines,  mound-builders 155 

Copper-pfoducing  nations   156 

Copper  production,  by  nations 226 

Copper,  zinc  and  nickel  alloy 1 55 

Copra,  how  obtained    170 


Copra,  what  it  is 105 

Coriander    182 

Cork,  definition  of   ' 159 

factories    159 

groves,  regions  of 159 

how  obtained  159 

uses  of 159 

Corn,  introduction  to  Europe  by  Spain 165 

an  important  element   165 

book  of  recipes 166 

Corn  bran,  use  of • 166 

Corn  crop  of  the  New  World 15 

Corn  kitchens    .' 166 

Corn  oil,  the  refineries  of 167 

uses   of    166 

Corn  production  by  nations  226 

Corn  pith,  use  of 166 

Corn  rubber   166 

uses   of    167 

Corn  spirits,  uses  of   167 

Corn  States  of  our  Union 167 

Corn  sugar,  uses  of 166 

Cornell's  cable   35 

Cornwall,  mines  of 150 

Corregidor    115 

Cottolene 181 

Cotton  churks    180 

Cotton  fabrics,  antiquity  of 178 

Cotton  gin,  value  of 180 

Cotton  mart  of  the  world 181 

Cotton  mills  in  the  South 10 

Cotton,  kinds  of   178 

latitude  of  growth 180 

nation,  the  largest 181 

native  of  178 

oil  cake  181 

per  cent,  of  in  the  United  States 180 

production,  by  nations 220 

Cotton  ports  of  our  nation 181 

Cotton  pulp    181 

Cotton  regions  of  the  world 180 

Cotton-seed  flour  181 

Cotton  spindles  of  our  nation 180 

Counties  in  Congressional  districts,  plan  of  study  of .  .  .  233 

Counties  of  State  Senatorial  districts,  plan  of  study  of,  234 
Counties  of  State  Representative  districts,  plan  of  study 

of    234 

Cow  leather    186 

Cow  tree 103 

Crab  apple,  nature  of 172 

Ci'anberry  .  . .  ^ 174 

Creosote    160 

"  Crown  of  the  Continent "   91 

Crucible,  explanation  of   153 

Crucible  steel 1 54 

Crude-drug  commerce    183 

Crystal  Palace,  description  of 132 

Cuba,  greatest  exports  of   215 

greatest  imports  of    215 

national  counters  of   . 215 

Cucumber,  a  gourd 175 

use  of .  175 

Cunard  Line 205 

Cunard,  a  pioneer  steamer  line 42 

Currants,  origin  of  name 172 

Cut-flower  trade  of  the  United  States 183 

Cuxhaben 138 


246 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


D. 

Dairy  products,  by  nations   227 

Dams  of  the  Nile  188 

Damascus  caravan,  The  21 

Danish  colonies,  number  of  197 

Darfur  caravan,  commerce  of 22 

Darfur  caravan,  The   22 

Darling  river  108 

Date  commerce    170 

Date  palm,  value  of 170 

where  found  170 

Dead  letter  office 34 

Deep  mines,  heat  of 150 

Denmark,  greatest  exports  of 213 

greatest  imports   of    213 

national  counters    213 

Desert  mirage   22 

Detroit,  description  of 82 

Detroit  river  tonnage 81 

Deutsehland,  its  recent  log 142 

Devil's  Lake    90 

Dewberry    174 

Dextrines  (corn) ,  uses  of       166 

Diamond  Head,  or  Leahi   99 

Digitalis     183 

Diagrams  all  our  own    229 

Diagrams  of  relative  proportions  of  foods  imported  in 

1900   18 

Dirt-eating   people    105 

Distance  in  miles  at  sea  —  a  problem 98 

Distillation  of  coal,  products  of 151 

Donedin     107 

"  Dogs  "  in  ship-building 44 

"  Doldrums  "  of  the  Pacific 101 

Domestic  commerce,  in  agricultural  products 162 

in  animal  products 162 

in  lumbering    162 

in  manufacturing  products  162 

in  mineral  products   162 

Dominion  Line 205 

Drug  commerce,  distributing  points  of 183 

Dulutli,  description  of   87 

an  ore  port 154 

docks,  description  of   87 

harbor  lights   87 

Dungeness  Light  96 

Dutchman,  The  Flying   142 

Duties  of  the  Life-Saving  Service  officers 65 

E. 

Eastern  Chinese  Railroad 124 

East  Indian  archipelago  115 

commerce    115 

telegraph   35 

Economic  plants   164-183 

Eddy  Light 141 

Eddystone  Lighthouse  52 

Ediz  Hook  Light   97 

Educational  institutions  of  State,  plan  of  study  of ... .  235 
Effect  of  Panama  or  Niearaguan  Canal  on  food  com- 
merce       19 

Effect  of  Trans-Siberian  Railroad  on  food  commerce. ...  19 

Eggs,  per  capita  16 

Egypt,  greatest  exports  of 216 

greatest  imports  of 216 

national  counters  of   216 

Eight  most  important  food  products  exported  by  the 

United  States    20 


Eight  most  important  food  products  imported  by  the 

United  States    20 

Elbe   137 

Electric  city ......' 80 

Engine  quarters 50 

England,  coal  area  of   151 

English   coal    151 

Ensley  steel  plant : 155 

Ecuador,  greatest  exports  of   215 

greatest  imports  of 215 

national  counters  of  215 

Erie  Canal,  description  of   68 

effects  on  commerce  68 

enlargement  of    68 

Ermack,  description  of   123 

Ermine  fur^  use  of  184 

when  obtained  184 

Ermine  robe  of  French  king   184 

Escanaba  as  an  ore  port 154 

Essayist  on  Samoa    103 

Esquimault  Harbor    96 

Euphrates  Railroad,  history  of  30 

route  of    30 

Europe,  lumber  nation  of 214 

Evans  steamboat 42 

Everett,  a  Puget  Sound  city  93 

Executive  order  affecting  consuls  54 

Exports,  defined    10 

Experimental  farms  of  Russia 129 

Exported  products  of  the  United  States,  classified ....  230 

Express,  amount  of   39 

a  Yankee  notion   39 

business,  origin  of   38 

collectors     39 

companies,  commercial  names  of 39 

medals 41 

money  orders  vs.  postal  orders  39 

Extent  of  express  business  in  our  nation 3SF 

F. 

Facts  for  laboratory  work   147 

"  Fairing  the  ship,"  explanation  of 43 

Fargo,  a  machinery  center 89 

Farm  Cove   108 

Father   Hennepin    151 

Federal  capital  of  the  Australian  commonwealth 112 

Fernshaw  gum  trees 112 

Fern  trees    lOtf 

Fiber  of  cryota  palm 170 

Fiber  family  170-174,  179-182 

Fiber  family,  what  it  includes  170 

Fiber  plants,  number  of  179 

Fiji  Islands,  description  of •  105 

Figs,  earliest  known  fruit 172 

native   of    172 

regions  in  which  cultivated 172 

work  of  Agricultural  Department  in  transplant- 


ing 


172 


value  of 172 

Figs,  Smyrna 172 

Finest  immigrant  station  on  the  globe,  Ellis  Island 144 

Finland.  Gulf  of    136 

Finland's  capital  city   v,. . . .  137 

First  American  coal  mine   151 

First  application  of  steam  24 

First  express  west 39 

First  ocean  cable ;  value  of  one  cablegram 36 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


247 


First  ocean  steamer   42 

First  Ohio  steamer 42 

First  postal  service  of  America 33 

First  steamer  across  the  Atlantic  141 

Fisher    185 

Fitch's  steamboat   *  42 

Five  car  and  locomotive  works  of  the  United  States.  .  .  .   232 

Five  coal  regions  of  the  United  States 232 

Five  copper  regions  of  the  United  States 232 

Five  gold  regions  of  the  United  States 232 

Five  great  manufacturing  centers  of  the  United  States,  232 
Five  iron  manufacturing  States  of  the  United  States.  .  .   232 

Five  leading  cattle  States  of  the  United  States 231 

Five  leading  corn  States  of  the  United  States 230 

Five  leading  cotton  States  of  the  United  States 230 

Five    leading    countries    buving    hog    products    of    the 

United     States    ' 231 

Five  leading  dairy  States  of  the  United  States 231 

Five  leading  hay  States  of  the  United  States   231 

Five  leading  hog-producing  States  of  the  United  States,  231 

Five  leading  potato  States  of  the  United  States 231 

Five  leading  sheep  States  of  the  United  States 231 

Five  leading  silver  regions   231 

Five  leading  sugar  districts  of  the  United  States 231 

Five  leading  toliacco  States  of  the  United  States 231 

Five  leading  wheat  States  of  the  United  States 2a0 

Five  lumber  regions  of  the  United  States 231 

Five  most  populous  States  of  the  United  States 232 

Five  most  w-ealthy  States  of  the  United  States 232 

Five  ship-building  centers  of  the  United  States 232 

Fives  of  commerce   213-218 

Five  Sttites  having  the  greatest  railroad  mileage 232 

Five  States  manufacturing  textile  fabrics  of  the  United 

States    232 

Flax,  antiquity  of 179 

importance  of    179 

production  by  nations   226 

uses  of 179" 

when  introduced  to  America 179 

Florin,  first  regular  coin   212 

"  Florence  B.'"  and  her  work,  The 81 

Floiiring  mills,  location  of  164 

products   of    164 

Flour  market  of  Xew  York  city 183 

"  Flour  City  "  of  the  nation 88 

"  Flower  City  "  of  the  nation 77 

Fluctuating  currency  212 

Fog  signal,  cost  of   59 

object  of   59 

Fogs  off  Newfoundland,  causes  of 144 

Fog  whistle  in  a  channel  voyage 141 

Food  adulterations  18 

'Food  counterfeits  vs.  money  counterfeits   18 

Food  elements  exported  by  the  United  States 19 

Food  elements  "  Uncle  Sam  "  imports 18 

Foreign  mails,  steamers  carrying  34 

Foreign  money,  value  in  U.  S.  gold 212 

Forest  reserves,  area  of    163 

location  of    .  . 163 

need  of 163 

Forest  resources  of  Canada 162 

Formosa 119 

Fort  Bourk 108 

Fort  Gratiot 83 

Fort  Hamilton 49 

Fort  Totten   90 

Fort  Wadsworth   49 


Four  leading  States  in  periodicals  issued 232 

Foxes,  kinds  of   185 

France,  coal  of    152 

the  greatest  exports  of   213 

the  greatest  imports  of 213 

the  national  counters  of   213 

the  steel  of 154 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  philosophy  of  storms 207 

Freight  engines,  the  weight  of   25 

Freighter  routes   21 

French  colonies,  number  of 197 

French  consul,  salary  of   55 

French    dolls    139 

Fresnel  lamp,  cost  of 63 

description  of    63 

From  the  Lakes  to  the  Pacific 88-96 

Frozen-meat  plant,  largest  in  world .  215 

Fruit  evaporation,  its  influence  on  apple  exports 172 

Fruit  family    172-176 

Fur,  first  clothing  material   184 

Furnace  blast    153 

Furnace,  reverberatory    153 

Fur  of  St.  Paul  dressers,  classified 184 

Fur  market  of  Russia   185 

Fur  market  of  the  world 185 

Fur  most  highly  prized 184 

Fur  sales  in  London   184 

Fur  traders  pioneers  of  civilization  184 

Fur-trading  posts   184 

Fusan    12f 

Fustian,  made  from  182 

a. 

Galveston,  destruction  of   143 

Galveston  storm,  help  given  by  railroads   27 

Gamboge,  uses  of   160 

where  found  160 

Granary  of  the  world 17 

Gas     150 

Gas  engines 154 

Gclsemium    182 

General  trans-Atlantic  line 205 

Geneva  of  America 91 

Gensan,  description  of  122 

Geographical  terms,  meaning  of 223 

Geranium  —  group,  number,  species 183 

Geranium  hedges    112 

German  consul,  salary  of 55 

German  colonies,  number  of 197 

Germany,  gi'eatest  exports '. 213 

greatest  imports    213 

national  counters    213 

steel  of    154 

Gibraltar  of  Russia   136 

Ginger,  where  cultivated 176 

how  obtained   176 

Gipsland    110 

Glass   factories    174 

Glucose,  amount  piirchased  by  Great  Britain 166 

corn  product    166 

factories     166 

factories,  by-products  of  166 

uses   of    166 

Gluten   (corn ) ,  uses  of   166 

Gold    156 

Gold,  amalgamation  process 156 

bullion  per  day,  $3,500   156 


248 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Gold,  date  of  discovery    1 49 

distribution  of   150 

free     156 

how  freed  from  impurities  156 

nuggets  of    156 

ore,  origin  of 156 

placer-mining  of   156 

regions  of,  in  the  United  States 156 

regions  of,  in  the  world 156 

uses  of    156 

value  of 156 

why  a  standard  "of  values  156 

Gold  fields  of  Australia 113 

Gold  mines  in  Siberia,  character  of 127 

Gooseberry    174 

Gore,  Obadiah   151 

Government  improvement  of  Siberian  Railroad 126 

Government  inducements  to  Siberian  settlers 123 

Government  watchers,  tents  and  row-boats  of 84 

Grades  of  sugar,  how  obtained 168 

Grain  crop  of  the  world 15 

Grape  region,  one  of  the  finest 172 

Grape,  seedless    172 

Grapes  long  known  to  man 172 

Graphite,  definition  of  150 

Grasse  (France),  flowers  used  for  perfumery 183 

Grasses    " 164-169 

Gras  pomade  183 

Gravity  dump,  description  of 87 

Great  Barriers  Reefs   114 

Great  Britain,  greatest  exports  of 213 

greatest  imports  of 213 

national  counters  of 213 

steel  of    154 

Great  canals  of  commerce,  question  summary 70 

Great  Eastern  and  the  Atlantic  cable 36 

Great  Lakes  commerce,  summary  of 82 

Great  Sandy  Island   114 

Greatest  business  concern  in  the  world 34 

Greatest  coffee  region   17 

Greatest  iron  city  in  the  world  154 

Greatest  manufacturing  center  in  Siberia 128 

Greatest  natural  wonders   '. 194 

Greece,  greatest  exports  of    213 

greatest  imports  of 213 

national  counters  of ; 213 

Greymouth    . 107 

Ground  swell  of  ocean   97 

Guam,  capital  of   199 

description  of    105 

government  of 199 

Guavas    182 

Guiana,  greatest  exports  of  216 

greatest  imports  of 216 

national  counters  of ' 216 

Gulf  of  St.  Peter  the  Great ' .  .  .    122 

Gulf  Stream,  description  of  144 

Gum  lac    161 

Gums,  classes  of 160 

definition  of  160 

of  resins    160 

uses   of    160 

Gurnet  Light 57 

Gutta-percha,  definition  of  160 

regions  producing 160 


H. 

Hamburg-American  line    

Hamburg,  commerce  of   

description  of    

history  of   

Hard  maple,  uses  of  

Hares     

Harness    

Hashish     

Havre  a  commercial  center 

docks   of    

history  of   

shipyards   of    

Hawaii,  a  valuable  commercial  exchange  for  the  United 
States    

commerce  of  

geography  of   

government  of   

history  of   

products  of 

railways  of 

Hawaiian  health  officer  with  the  ship's  pilot,  why 

Hawaiian  Islands,  names  of    

Hay   crops    

Hay  crops  of  our  nation  

Hay  grasses   

Hay  States  of  our  nation 

Hay  yield  by  States 

Heavy  caravan    

Helena,  description  of   

Hemp,  habitat  of   

oil 

regions  of   

seed    

uses  of  

"  Hermit  nations,"  in  commercial  world 

Herodotus'  account  of  royal  canal  of  Babylon 

Highest-paid  American  consul   

"  Highs  "  and  "  lows  "  

Hilo    

Historic   Boston    

History  of  a  State   

Hobart  Town 

Hobson's  bay   

Hog-producing  nations    ' 

Hold,  capacity  of 

Holland-American  Line   

Hollyhocks    

Holly  tree  

Holtman    

Home  again   _ 

Home  of  Mocha  coffee 

Homestead   steel  plant    

Hondo    

Hong  Kong,  description  of 

expanding  commerce    

Honolulu     

harbor,  description  of 

Hoosac  tunnel   

Hop  cloth,  where  made  

Horse  leather    

Hot  Lake  district 

Houses  of  refuge,  description  of 

How  metallic  ores  of  the  United  States  rank 


205 
137* 
137 
137 
182 
185 
186 
181 
139 
139 
139 
139 

101 
199 
100 
199 
100 
100 
101 

99 
199 
109 
169 
169 
169 
169 

23 

90 
181 
181 
181 
181 
181 
121 

08 

55 
208 
101 

73 
235 
108 
111 
227 

45 
205 
183 
178 
137 
145 

17 
155 
120 
118 
118 
199 

99 

74 
182 
186 
105 

66 
230 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


249 


Huckleberry   174 

Hudson  Bay  Fur  Company   184 

Hull,  construction  of   44 

Hunting  Island  lighthouse   61 

I. 

Icebergs     49 

Ice-breakers,  value  of    123 

Idaho,  gold  of   156 

.  Illinois,  coal  of   152 

pig  iron  of   154 

steel  of   154 

Iloilo    116 

Immigrants,  care  of 144 

Imperial  library 135 

Important  aids  to  commerce,  question  summary 39 

Imported  products  of  the  United  States,  classified  ....   230 

Imports,  defined 10 

India,  coal  of 153 

gold  of    156 

greatest  exports  of  218 

greatest  imports  of 218 

national  counters  of 218 

original  fiber  of 179 

Indiana,  coal  of 152 

Indian  corn,  native  of   165 

Influence  of  Mohammedan  caravan  commerce 21 

Inland  sea,  description  of 119 

International  Bureau  of  Telegraphs 35 

International  code  signals    97 

International  date  line,  history  of 103 

location  of   103 

juoblem,  explained   104 

International  wrangle  over  Samoa 102 

Introduction   5 

Invention  of  canal  lock,  effect  on  canal-building 68 

Invercargill    107 

Iowa,  coal  of   152 

Ipecac    •. 183 

Irish  damask  of  flax 179 

Irkutsk,  a  commercial  center  127 

Irkutsk  fairs   127 

Iron,  date  of  discovery 149 

distribution  of 153 

of  commerce 153 

ore.  kinds  of 153 

"  Ironquill's  "  Manila  verse   116 

Isotherms,  definition  of 208 

"  Islands  of  Rainbows  "    99 

Isle  of  Xew  Werk 138 

Italian  colonies,  number  of 197 

Italian  Royal  Mail  Line  205 

Italy,  coal  of  153 

greatest  exports  of 213 

greatest  imports  of 213 

national  counters  of    213 

J. 

"  Jam  ■'  island  84 

Japan,  coal  of   153 

greatest  exports  of 218 

greatest  imports  of 218 

national  counters  of    218 

Japanese  coaling  a  vessel,  description  of   118 

Jinrikisha  man,  description  of 120 

Juan  de  Fuca  Strait 96 


.July  the  coldest  Australian  month  . 110 

Juniper,  berries  of   183 

Jungle  of  bamboo  168 

Jute,  where  obtained   182 

K. 

Khartoum   188 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  canal   137 

Ivaiser  Wilhelm's  Land   114 

Kalama,  the  largest  active  volcano  on  the  globe 101 

Kalamazoo  celery  district,  yield  of   176 

Kalaupapa  and  Koko  Head 99 

Kalawao    99 

Kangaroo    185 

Ivangaroo  grass 113 

leather  186 

Kansas,  altitude  of  western  limit  of  State 237 

area  of    237 

average  annual  moisture 237 

average  value  of  commercial  products 238 

barley  yield   .238 

breadth  in  miles   237 

coal  of  152 

commiercial  products,  classified   238 

corn  yield 238 

distance  from  Kansas  City.  Kas..  to  chief  centers 
of  domestic  commerce  of  the  United  States.  .  .   238 

eastern   altitude    237 

five  most  populous  centers   236 

garden  vegetables,  value  of 238 

hay  crop   238 

length  in  miles 237 

live-stock  products   238 

mineral  products,  value  of 238 

moisture,  summer 237 

moisture,  winter   237 

population  of 236 

potato  yield   238 

statistics     236-238 

summary     235 

twent.y-five  largest  cities  in  order  of  rank 236 

temperature,  summer  months    237 

temperature,  winter  months 237 

value  of  crops  from  1882  to  1901 238 

value  of  farm  crops   238 

weather    237 

wheat  yield   238 

Karaka    ". 106 

Karwan-baschi,  defined 22 

Kauri  gum    106,  161 

Keeper  of  life  station,  salary  of 66 

Kentuckv,  coal  of   152 

pig  iron  of   154 

Khar-ma-Davan     126 

Kiahtka  a.  caravan  center 127 

Kid  leather 186 

Kiete    128 

Kiushu  Island  119 

Kirghiz  steppe  region   128 

Klondike,  gold  of   156 

Kobe,   brightest   and   healthiest   foreign    settlement   in 

Japan    119 

Kobe,  harbor,  steamer  lines  of 121 

Kongo,  greatest  exports  of 216 

greatest  imports  of 216 

national  counters    216 

Kootenai  river,  description  of  91 


250 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


Korea,  development  of    121 

shape  and  size  of   122 

Krasnoyarsk,  mining  center  of 128 

Kronstadt  fortress,  history  of 136 

harbor    136 

Kroogo-Baikal  Line,  The    127 

Kurgan    130 

Kyoto,  history  of  120 

L. 

Laces  from  cotton 179 

Ladrone  group 105 

Lake  Baikal,  description  of   126 

Lake  Chelau,  a  national  wonder   92 

Lake  Erie,  storms  of 83 

Lake  freight  vs.  rail 86 

Lake  Huron,  storms  of 83 

Lake  Ladoga    134 

Lake  Shore  Express   75 

Lakes  of  commercial  importance 192 

Lake  Superior,  comparative  area  of 86 

iron    154 

ore  shipping  ports  of 87 

ore,  why  transported   87 

picture  rocks  of 86 

why  always  cold   86 

La  Manche   139 

Lamport  and  Holt  Line 206 

Land  areas  of  earth  classified 228 

Largest  cities  of  the  United  States,  by  States 203 

Largest  gold  nuggets,  weight  of 156 

Largest  islands  of  the  world    228 

Largest  steel  plant 155 

Largest  sugar  refinery  in  the  world 168 

Launching  of  steamers 44 

La  Valoce  Line   205 

Lead,  date  of  discovery 149 

where  found  157 

Leading  museums  of  the  world 190 

Leather   commerce    186-188 

Leather  exports  vs.  imports  of  hides  and  skins 187 

Leather  metropolis  of  commercial  world 186 

Leather-producing  countries 186 

Lemon,  botanical  family  of 173 

extract    174 

imports 174 

oil  of 174 

regions  of 174 

tree,  compared  to  orange 173 

tree,  used  by  Romans 173 

tree,  yield  of   174 

Length  of  a  degree  of  longitude ;  table  in  nautical  miles,  98 

Letter  postage,  "  then  "  and  "  now  " 33 

Liberty  Light    49 

Life-saving  appliances   65 

Life-saving  service,  examinations   65 

miles  under  regulation 64 

mother  of   64 

officers   65 

of  the  United  States ;  question  summary 67 

value  of 67 

Life-saving  stations,  number  of 67 

Life-saving  wage-system  uniform 65 

Light  caravan   23 

Lighthouse  board,  organization  of 58 

Lighthouse,  its  influence  on  commerce 56 

Lighthouse-keeper,  character  of 63 


Lighthouse  lamps   62 

Lighthouse,  location  of   59 

Lighthouse  service,  officers  of 58 

a  training-school  58 

under  Federal  Government 57 

Lighthouses,  history  of   56 

Lighthouse  system  of  Europe,   study  of,  by  a  United 

States  Government  committee   57 

Lighthouse  tender    62 

number  of 62 

Light-ships 56 

lo<.'ation  of    59 

Light  stations,  of  America,  classified 56 

of  our  nation,  question  summary 63 

of  the  world 56 

Lignite,  definition  of 150 

Lime  juice,  use  of   174 

Lime,  production  of,  by  nations 226 

relation  to  lemon   174 

Linen  manufactories 179 

Linen  mills  in  England 179 

Links   179 

Linseed  meal,  how  obtained  179 

Linseed  oil,  use  of 179 

Little  Brewster's  Light 57 

Liverwort    183 

Location  of  American  consuls-general 56 

Locomotive  boiler,  life  of   25 

Locomotive,  first  builder  of   24 

largest  in  the  world 33 

life  of    25 

mileage  and  care  of 25 

power  of   25 

cost  of  26 

■when  first  built 24 ' 

London,  Bombay  &  Hong  Kong  Railroad,  route  of  ...  .  30 

London  to  Hong  Kong,  via  Canadian  Pacific 29 

via  Suez  Canal 29 

via  Trans-Siberian  Railroail 29 

Longest  lake  ride  in  the  world 79-88 

Longitude,  length  of  a  degree  varies 98 

Longstreet's  steamboat   42 

Louisville  floating  station 64 

Lumber    161-163 

classes  of  trees    162 

greatest  regions  of   161 

market  of  the  world 162 

regions  of  Europe  162 

regions  of  North  America 162 

regions  of  South  America  162 

States  in  rank  162 

Luster,  a  metal  characteristic  149 

Lyttelton    107 

M. 

Mace  of  commerce  115,  176 

Mackinac,  a  cool  resort  in  summer 83 

scenic  places  of   83 

Mackinac  Island,  history  of 83 

Madagascar,  greatest  exports  of 217 

greatest  imports  of 217 

national  counters  of 217 

Ma^ey,  flower-stalk   178 

uses  of 178 

yield  of  pulque   178 

Mail  clerks,  how  selected   34 

work  of   34 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


251 


Mail,  "  left  over  and  late  " 53 

Mainachin,  a  Chinese  trading-post 127 

Mallow  group,  number  of  species  of 183 

Mauch  Chunk  Railroad '    25 

Manchester,  canal  of 68 

Manchurian  Railroad,  American  ties  and  rails  for  ....    123 

Manila,  exports  of  116 

imports  of 117 

Manioc,  native  of  171 

description  of    171 

Manila  time,  when  changed  to  Asiatic  time 103 

Manna 102 

Manuaka   106 

Manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  186 

Manufactures  of  the  United  States,  in  order  of  rank  .  .  .   230 

Manufacturing  plant,  value  to  commerce 75 

Maple  sugar  a  commercial  product 182 

Marble,  definition  of   158 

regions  of  158 

uses   of    158 

quarries  of   158 

Marine  commerce,  sailing  vessels,  tonnage  of 224 

steam  tonnage  of 224 

Marine  Signal  Hill 107 

Marshmallow  roots 183 

Marten 185 

Marmot 185 

Maryland,  pig  iron  of 154 

steel  of    154 

Marquette  as  an  ore  port 154 

Massachusetts  Humane  Society,  work  of 64 

Massachusetts,  pig  iron  of 154 

Mastic    161 

Mauna  Loa  Fourth  of  July  display,  1899 100 

Meat  bill  of  the  United  States 15 

Meat  exports.  Government  stamp   48 

Meat  schedule  for  nations,  per  capita 15 

Mecca,  a  caravan  center   21 

Mecca  balsam,  how  used  160 

where  obtained    160 

Medicine  family 182,  183 

Meeting  a  ship  at  sea 51 

Meeting  of  currents  of  Newfoundland  144 

Melbourne,  commerce  of   Ill 

description  of 110 

history  of  its  founding  110 

Melon,  native  of  175 

regions    175 

Mercury,  date  of  discovery 149 

where  found 157 

Metal,  definition  of 149 

Metallic  ores  of  the  United  States,  rank  of 230 

Metals,  free,  explanation  of 149 

Mexican  International  Steamship  Company  Line 206 

Mexico,  greatest  exports  of 215 

greatest  imports  of    ,.  .   215 

national  counters  of 215 

gold  of 156 

Michigan,  pig  iron  of 154 

steel  of   154 

Micronesia    105 

Mid-ocean  concert  51 

Milford  Sound 107 

Milk  sticks  for  sale 128 

Minerals,  most  widely  distributed 153 

outline  for  study 150 

commerce,  value  of 149 


Minerals,  distribution  of 149 

Mineral  fertilizers,  classified  157 

where  found 157 

Mineral   pyramids    225,  226 

Mineral  productions  by  nations 226,  227 

Minerals  of  Tomsk 128 

Mineral  wealth  of  Luzon 117 

Minot,  a  division  headquarters 90 

Mines,  depth  limit  to  work 150 

drainage  of 150 

shafts  of   150 

A'entilation  of 150 

Mink    185 

Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul,  twin  cities  of 88 

Minneapolis,  lumber  commerce  of  162 

mills  of 88 

Minnesota,  description  of 88 

two  great  railroads  of 88 

steel  of   156 

Minnesota  mills,  exported  products  of 88 

feed  ground  at 88 

Miscellaneous  garden  products 175-177 

Missouri  and  Colorado,  pig  iron  of 154 

Missouri,  coal  of 152 

steel  of 154 

Mocha  coffee 177 

Mohawk  valley 76 

Molasses  of  commerce,  how  obtained 170 

Money,  an  index   211 

cereal 211 

bronze 211 

Chinese  cash    211 

Chinese    211 

copper  coin 211 

copper  212 

definition  of  211 

dried  codfish 211 

hoe 211 

hunting    211 

in  circulation  in  the  United  States 229 

iron 211 

pastoral 211 

silver    212 

of  the  world,  value  of 212 

of  the  United  States,  kinds  of 212 

standard  unit  of  each  coin 212 

tobacco     212 

Money  orders,  division  of  United  States  mails  in  inter- 
national clearing-house   34 

Moslem  caravan  routes   21 

Montana,  gold  of   156 

Molucca  pass   115 

jMorgan  Line    206 

Moreton  bay 114 

Morey's  steamboat   42 

Morning  salute  in  St.  Petersburg 132 

Morocco,  greatest  exports  of 217 

greatest  imports  of 217 

national  counters  of  217 

Moji,  Japan 121 

Mulberry  fiber,  uses  of  182 

Moscow  Express,  The 127 

Moscow,  commercial  conections  of 131 

industries  of 131 

sledge  commerce  of 131 

the  Pan-Slavic  center 131 

Mound-Builders  153 


252 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Mountain  peaks,  important 193 

Mount  Hotham   110 

Mount  Intoko    107 

!Mount  Kosciusko   110 

Mount  Morgan  mine 114 

Mount  Eanier 9G,  194 

Mussow,  Siberia   126 

Muscat  caravan,  The  22 

Museum  at  Philadelphia,  work  of 191 

Museums,  most  influential 189 

Murray  river,  description  of   109 

Mustard,  an  annual  plant 177 

black,  where  grown 177 

wild,  where  found 177 

Muskrat    185 

Musk-ox    , 185 

^Mustard  group,  number  of  species 183 

native  of  Arctic  regions 183 

Muslin,  from  cotton  179 

Myrrh,  uses  of 160 

where  obtained 160 

]\Iyrtle  group,  number  of  species 182 

Myrtles,  varying  size 182 

N. 

Nagasaki     118 

dry  docks  of 119 

Naples  of  New  England 105 

Natal,  greatest  exports  of 217 

greatest  imports  of 217 

national  counters  of  217 

Nation's  marine  commerce ' 224 

Nations  owning  their  railroads 28 

Natural  coke,  where  found  151 

Natural  features  that  influence  commerce 192-195 

Natural  gas  of  the  United  States,  by  States 230 

Natural  sky-scrapers  of  the  world 228 

Navel  oranges,  history  of 173 

Navigable  rivers  of  importance 192 

Navigator's  island    102 

Nectarines    174 

Negroid  natives 109 

"  Neptune's  christening "    101 

Nerchinsk   126 

Netherlands,  canals  of 68 

greatest  exports  of 213 

greatest  imports  of 213 

national  counters  of 213 

Nevada,  gold  of 156 

New  commercial  freighters  to  Honolulu 96 

New  England  a  manufacturing  center 9 

value  to  central  States 75 

New  Guinea,  size  of  114 

New  Jersey,  pig  iron  of 154 

steel  of    154 

storms  of  1880 67 

New  markets  for  American  meats 19 

New  Mexico,  gold  of 156 

New  Orleans,  the  world's  sugar  mart 168 

New  South  Wales,  coal  of 153 

New  York  and  Cuba  Mail  Line 206 

New  York  to  San  Francisco  by  rail 27 

New  York  Central  freight  traffic  from  west 77 

New  York  a  logical  metropolis ;  why  ? 10 

New  York  and  Porto  Rico  Line 206 

New  York,  canals  of (!8 

first  in  biickwheat 76 


New  York,  first  in  cheese 76 

first  in  hops 76 

first  in  milk 76 

nursery  and  grape  region  of 77 

pig  iron  of   154 

steel  of    154 

New  Zealand,  coal  of 153 

comparative  area    106 

earthquakes  of 105 

greatest  exports  of  218 

greatest  imports  of 218 

national  counters  of 218 

value  of  her  location  to  her  commerce 107 

Niagara,  energy  of.  how  transmitted  and  made  kinetic,  79 

harnessing,  history  of   79 

Nicaragua  canal 70,  107 

Nickel,  date  of  discoveiy 149 

where  found 157 

Nightshade  group,  members  of 182 

Nikolskoe    124 

Nile,  commercial  importance  of   188 

Nile  dam.  commercial  value  of 189 

Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha  Line 206 

Noon  log,  how  taken 98 

North  America,  commercial  countries  of 214 

North  Carolina  and  Georgia,  pig  iron  of 154 

North  Carolina,  steel  of   154 

North  German  Lloyd  Line   205 

North  Island  legends   105 

Northern  Pacific  Steamship  Company  Line 206 

North  river 48,  145 

North  sea  138 

"  Northwest  "  steamer,  cost  of 80 

crew  of   80 

description  of 79 

NoA-gorod,  great  fair  of 131 

Number  in  consular  service   55 

Nutmeg  of  commerce  115 

how  obtained  176 

Nutmeg  fruit,  description  of 176 

Nutmeg  tree,  description  of 176 

O. 

Oahu 99 

Oat  meal,  per  capita  consumption  of 15 

Oat-meal  mills  167 

Oat  regions  of  the  world 167 

Oats,  Dr.  Johnson's  definition  of 167 

native  of 167 

Obi-Irtysk  river  system 128 

Occidental  and  Oriental  Steamship  Line 206 

Ocean  areas   228 

Oceanic  Steamship  Company  Line 206 

Ocean  mail,  improvements  made  in  by  Dr.  Franklin  ...  33 

Oceans,  area  of  196 

Ocean,  sign-posts  and  signals  of 97 

Ocean  steamer,  description  of 43 

Ocean  voyage  in  steamer  "  St.  Louis  " 53 

Ocean  weather  report 206 

October  weather  at  Irkutsk 126 

Officers  of  lighthouse  service,  salaries  of 58 

Ofoo 102 

Ohio,  coal  of 152 

pig  iron  of  154 

steel  of 154 

Ohio  flood's  work,  life-saving  by  floating  station 66 

Oil  cake  (corn ) ,  uses  of 166,  179 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


253 


Oil  industry 158 

Oil  of  tar   160 

Oil  regions   158 

Oil,  pipe  lines  of 158 

used  to  sprinkle  railroad  track 74 

Oldest  lighthouse  in  existence   63 

Oldest  mining  center  of  Siberia 128 

Oldest  trees,  where  located 112 

Old-style  Russian  time   135 

Olive  branch,  emblem  of  175 

Olive  fruit,  how  used  174 

Olive  oil,  use  of  for  butter   174 

how  obtained    174 

Olive  tree,  size  of  175 

where  grown    175 

Olive,  native  of  174 

value  of 174 

Olive  wood  175 

Oloosinga    102 

Onon    124 

Opium,  as  a  narcotic 182 

medicinal  use 182 

source  of   182 

Opossum    185 

Orange  blossoms,  uses  of 173 

Oranges,  botanical  family  of   .  » 173 

native  of  173 

packing 173 

regions  of  173 

Orange  Free  State,  greatest  exports  of 217 

greatest  imports  of 217 

national  counters  of 217 

Orchid  farm.  An   183 

Ore,  definition  of 149 

machinery  of  transportation 154 

of  New  Zealand 106 

Oregon,  gold  of 156 

Organization  of  the  United  States  life-saving  service,.  .  64 

Oriental  Steamship  Company  Line 206 

Original  colonies,  date  of  ratification  of  United  States 

constitution    205 

Osaka,  industries  of 120 

Otter    185 

Otter  fur 185 

Outline  book  for  State  study 233 

Overland  commerce,  where  now  carried  on 23 

Oxalis.  native  of  183 

Ox  hide   186 

P. 

Pacific  Coast  Steamship  Company  Line 205 

Pacific  coal 151 

Pacific  commerce  with  Vladivostok 123 

Pacific  Mail  Line 206 

Pacific  ocean,  comparative  area  of 99 

Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company  Line 206 

Pacific  voyage,  length  of 122 

Packing  industry,  by  cities 231 

Pago-Pago 102 

Pali  of  Oahu,  description  of 101 

Palmetto  fiber   182 

Palm  family,  number  of  species 169 

rank  in  commercial  importance 169 

Palm  fiber,  uses  of  170 

Palm,  four  species  in  the  United  States 169 

home  of  the -. 169 

Palm  fruit   170 


Palm  leaves,  uses  of 169 

Palm  wood,  use  of 169 

Panama  canal   107 

Panama  Railroad  Company's  Steamship  Line 206 

Pan-American  Railroad,  division  of 31 

history  of   31 

value  of    31 

Papuans,  most  barbaroiis  of  savages 114 

Paraffin  159 

Paraguay,  greatest  exports  of  216 

greatest  imports  of 216 

national  counters  of 216 

Parcels  post 39 

Parchment    186 

Paris    140 

Paris  Island  Rouge  Light 61 

Parramatta  river  oranges 108 

Passenger  engine,  weight  of  25 

Passenger  locomotive,  the  first 25 

Passing  an  ocean  greyhound  at  night 141 

Pawpaw,  juice  of   183 

Peach  palm,  where  found  170 

Peaches    174 

Pearl  oyster  farm,  description  of 115 

Pears   174 

Peat  bogs    150 

Peat,  definition  150 

use  of 150 

Pimento    182 

Pekin    124 

Pelagic  sealing,  definition  of 185 

Penal  institutions  of  State,  plan  of  study  of 235 

Penobscot  saw-mills   162 

Pennsylvania,  coal  of    152 

pig  iron  of 154 

steel  of    154 

Pepper  commerce  of  the  United  States 176 

Pepper  of  commerce,  what  it  is 176 

Pepper  vineyard,  description  of 115 

Peppermint,  leaves  of   183 

Perfumery,  number  of  plants  of 183 

Perm,  Russian 130 

Persia,  greatest  exports  of   218 

greatest  imports  of   218 

national  coimters  of  218 

Petersborough,  with  its  bridges 133 

Peterhof,  palace  of 136 

Petroleum,  history  of 158 

production  by  nations   226 

products     158 

uses  of 158 

when  first  found  in  America 158 

Philadelphia  museum,  organization  of 190 

Phoenician  mines  of  antiquity  149 

Phosphorescent  seas   108 

Physiography  of  a  country,  its  influence 10 

Pickle  factories,  largest 175 

how  cucumbers  are  bottled 175 

Pig  iron,  nations  producing   154 

production  by  nations   226 

production  of   154 

why  so  called 153 

Pineapple,  character  of  174 

where  grown    174 

Pine  cloth,  where  made 182 

Pioneer  railroad  of  New  York 27 

Pitch    160 


254 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


Pittsburg  a   steel   center;    why?    10,    87 

its  iron  industries 154 

Pittsfield,   Massachusetts    74 

Plan  for  study  of  States  233-235 

Plants  of  Australia,  number  of  native  species 112 

Plants,  number  of  species  of       164 

Plateaus  of  the  world,  height  of 196 

Platinum,  date  of  discovery 149 

uses   of    157 

where  found 157 

Platinum   mines    130 

Poi,  a  staff  of  life 100 

Point  Allerton 57 

Point  Wilson  light 96 

Pony  express   33 

Polar   furs    185 

Polynesia,  greatest  exports  of 218 

greatest  imports  of 218 

national  counters  of 218 

in  milky  way 104 

Poppy,  Avhere  cultivated   182 

Population  of  world,  by  continents 227 

by  races    227 

by  religions 227 

Populations  of  the  United  States,  1790-1900 230 

Pork  regions    15 

Port  Angelus  harbor,  description  of 97 

Port  Arthur 124 

Portsmouth  harbor  light 57 

Porto  Rico,  cables  of 199 

capital  of  200 

commerce  of  200 

cities  of 200 

description  of    199 

government  of   200 

location  of   199 

Port  Hudson    96 

Port  Jackson  108 

Port  Nicholson    107 

Port  Philip Ill 

Portugal,  greatest  exports  of 214 

greatest  imports  of 214 

national  counters  of 214 

Portuguese  colonies,  number  of   199 

Postal  auditing  office 34 

Postal  department  and  gold  in  California 33 

Postal   depmrtment  of  the  United  States  vs.  England, 

France.  Germany    34 

Postal  order 39 

Postal  service,  value  to  commerce 33 

Postal  system  established  by  Dr.  Franklin 33 

origin  of   33 

Postal  union,  rates  of   205 

when  established 34 

Post  lamp  on  river,  cost  of  maintaining 60 

Potassium,  date  of  discovery   149 

Potato  crop,  of  the  United  States,  amount 171 

of  the  United  States,  value 171 

of  the  world 14 

Potato  family,  members  of  171 

Potato.  Europe's  greatest  crop 171 

history  of  introduction 171 

native  of 171 

number  of  species       171 

why  called  Irish   171 

Potato  States  of  the  Union 171 

Potatoes,  per  capita  consumption  of 14 


Precipitation,  for  State 237 

Pi'eface 3 

Preserving  factories,  location  of  174 

Pribylof  islands,  valued  for  184 

Prince  Line   205,  206 

Provisioning  a  trans-Atlantic  liner 140 

Prussie  acid  in  manioc  roots 172 

Public  debt  of  leading  nations .• 227 

Pueblo  steel  plant 155 

Puget  Sound  fisheries   95 

Puget  Sound  harbors  vs.  Atlantic  harbors 93 

Puget  Sound  shore  line 95 

Pulp  mills 162 

Pulque,  amount  used  in  Mexico 178 

definition  of   178 

how  obtained  178 

Pumpkin,  use  of  175 

Put-in  Bay,  place  in  history 81 

Q. 

Quarantine  anchorage   49 

Quebec  Steamship  Company  Line 206 

Questions  on  overland  commerce 23 

Question  summary.  .  .13,  19.  23,  32,  40,  47.  53,  55,  63,  67,  70 

Quicksilver,  production  of,  by  nations 226 

Quick  transportation,  influence  on  fruit  commerce 173 

Quincy  Railroad,  cost  of 24 

length  of 24 

pioneer     24 

Quinine,  use  as  a  drug 159 

R. 

Raccoon 185 

Race  Rock's  Light  96 

Raffia,  where  obtained   182 

Railroad,  chief  agent  of  land  commerce 24 

first  one  in  the  United  States 24 

first  one  in  the  world 24 

first  to  connect  the  east  and  west 27 

importance  to  commerce   25 

mileage  by  continents    28 

mileage  in  North  America 28 

mileage  in  the  United  States 26 

Railroads  a  civilizing  agency 24 

commercial  namies  of  32 

of  Asia   .* 28 

of  Europe   28 

of  State,  plan  of  study  of 235 

public  vs.  private  28 

question  summary 32 

Railroad  time,  fastest  on  record,  long-distance  trains ...  78 

Railroad  tunnels,  important  ones  named 32 

Railway  mileage  by  nations 228 

"  Rainbow  City,"  a  wonderful  creation 78 

Rain  tree 103 

Rainy  day  in  Japan,  whole  city  three  inches  taller 121 

Raisins,  how  obtained   172 

regions  of   172 

Ralston  flour   164 

Ranking  cities  in  boots  and  shoes  186 

Raspberry     174 

Rata    106 

Rattan  palm,  product  used  by  man 170 

where  found 170 

Receipts  and  expenditures  of  the  United  States,  1890- 

1900  229 

Red  Bluff   96 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


255 


Red  Cross  Line 206 

Red  D  Line .   206 

Red  river,  wheat  regions  of 88 

Red  Star  Line 205 

Refined  grits  (corn),  uses  of 166 

Region    of    Fourth    of    July    weather    the   whole    year 

through  11^ 

Region  of  frozen  rivers 129 

Region  where  our  sale  of  food  products  is  increasing.  .  .      19 

Republics  of  Central  America,  greatest  exports  of 214 

greatest  imports  of 214 

national  counters  of 214 

Resins,  definition  of 160 

distribution  of  160 

how  obtained  160 

qualities   of    160 

Results  of  a  good  trade  balance 10 

Results  of  a  trade  balance  against  a  nation 10 

Revenue,  commission  of 57 

Rice,  a  staple  article  of  food 164 

per  capita  consumption  of 15 

uses  of  164  ' 

where  grown 164 

Ringtailed  cat   185 

River   commerce    59 

River  light,  cost  of 60 

description  of 60 

Rivers  of  State,  plan  of  study  of 234 

Riverside  oranges   173 

Robert  Fulton  and  his  steamboat 42 

Robert  Mackey  on  Tutuila  102 

"  Rocket,"  weight  and  speed 24 

Romer  shoal  light 49 

Rose  island,  one  of  Samoan  group 102 

Rose  farm,  A 183 

Rounding  the  "  Nose  "  76 

Route  of  telegram,  Washington  to  Manila 37 

Royal  Dutch  West  India  Mail  Line 206 

Rubber  commerce   160 

Rubber,  use  of 160 

Rudder  of  a  ship 45 

Rue  gi'ovip.  number  of  species 182 

Rue  tree,  medicinal  value 182 

Rumsey's    steamboat    42 

Russia,  coal  of   , 153 

gold  of ]  56 

greatest  exports  of  214 

greatest  imports  of    214 

national  counters  of 214 

steel  production  of   154 

Russian  coins 133 

Russian  colonies,  number  of 197 

Russian  consul,  salary  of 55 

Russian  leather  factory 133 

Russian  mint 133 

Russian  wheat  belt 129 

Rye,  a  hardy  plant 167 

native  of   167 

per  capita  consumption  of   15 

a  principal  food 167 

uses  of 167 

s. 

Sabbath,  service  on  ships 52 

Sable    185 

Sacred  mountains  of  Japan 120 

Saginaw  bay  and  its  cities , 83 


Sago,  a  palm  product 170 

how  obtained   170 

Sago  palm,  description  of  170 

Sahara  Railroad  of  Africa 30 

Sail  cloth,  of  flax 179 

Sailors'  home 51 

Sailors'  orphans'  home   52 

Saku    124 

Salaries  of  heads  of  governments 228 

Salt,  where  found 157 

Salter's  cotton  mill,  a  pioneer 180 

Salting  house 175 

Samara    130 

Samoa,  description  of  this  favored  land 102 

division  line  117°  W.  longitude 102 

home  of  poet  Stevenson   102 

notable  result  of  storm  of  1889 102 

supplies     102 

Samoan  treaty  of  1899 102 

Samoan  type  of  physical  manhood  and  womanhood 102 

Sandaric    161 

Sandy  Hook  144 

Sandy  Hook  light 57 

Sandy  Hook,  time  from,  to  dock 49 

San  Francisco,  cargo  for  Sydney 108 

Sapeks,  as  money , 211 

Saracen  wheat 167 

Savaii,  one  of  Samoan  islands  102 

Sarsaparillas    183 

Sault  Ste.  Marie  canal,  entering  of 84 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  locks  of 84 

Savings  banks,  by  nations 227 

Saxifrage  group    183 

"  Sayonara  "  to  Japan 122 

Schenectady,  its  history 75 

locomotive  works 76 

Sawmills,  by-products  of 162 

Scrub  land,  description  of 109 

Sea  coal    151 

Scrive-board,  explanation  of 43 

Sea  gulls,  bird  monarchs  of  the  Pacific 98 

endurance  of    98 

Sea  Island  cotton  introduced 179 

Seal  center 184 

Seal  fur,  uses  of   184 

Seal  otter  185 

Seattle,  description  of  93 

shipping  of 94 

Sea  water  that  cattle  drink 137 

Secretary  Hay  on  Pan-American  exposition 80 

Sector  lights,  definition  of 97 

Seeding  cotton,  amount  per  day ; 180 

Seine  river   139 

Senegal    128 

Seven  nations  having  greatest  amount  of  silver  coin 

in  circulation 225 

Seven  nations  having  greatest  amount  of  gold  coin  in 

circulation    225 

Sextant 98 

Shaft  coal,  cost  of 151 

Sheep  regions  of  the  world 16 

Sheepskin    186 

Scheldt  river    138 

Shilka  river   125 

Shimonoseki  strait  119 

Ship  of  the  desert 22 

Ship's  dining-room,  description  of 45 


256 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


Ship's  library 45 

Shipping  a  wave 142 

Ship's  log,  explanation  of 49 

Ship's  provisioning  important  140 

Ship's   mails    48 

Ship's  watches  49 

Shoemaker  arrested  for  selling  coal  that  was  black  stone,  151 

Siberia,  agricultural  region  of 129 

Kennan's  graphic  picture  of 129 

ivory  deposits  of 129 

forest  area  of 128 

Siberian  dining-car  meals   130 

Siberian  forest,  description  of 129 

Siberian  marine,  department  of 125 

Siberian  Railroad,  station-houses  of 124 

Siberian  squirrels   185 

Signal  display  station  97 

Silk  port  of  Japan 120 

Silk  production  by  nations 226 

Silk  tree   183 

Silver  a  coin  metal 157 

a  precious  metal  157 

date  of  discovery 149 

loading  nation  in  production  of 157 

native,  -where  found 157 

qualities  of 157 

Silver  regions  of  the  United  States 157 

of  the  world 157 

Sinai  mines    155 

Sisal  fiber 182 

Sisal,  use  of  182 

where  obtained 182 

Skunk 185 

Slag,  defined 153,  155 

Slate,  uses  of 157 

richest   quarries    157 

Sleighride  in  St.  Petersburg 132 

Smilax  group 183 

Smith  Island  Light 96 

Smokeless  gunpowder    167 

Smelters 149 

Smelting  explained 149 

Soapberry  group,  members  of 182 

Soapberry  tree,  native  of 182 

Soapberry  seeds,  character  of 182 

Sodium,  date  of  discovery 149 

mines  of   150 

Sombrero  Key,  light  of  61 

Soo  canal,  description  of 69 

developer  of  the  West 85 

value  to  lake  commerce   69 

Souih  Africa,  gold  of 156 

South  Dakota,  gold  of 156 

South  African  Republic,  greatest  exports ' 217 

greatest  imports  of 217 

national  counters  of 217 

South  America,  comimercial  nations  of 215 

South  American  Steamship  Company  Line 206 

South  island 107 

Southern  centers  of  trade 10 

Southern  cotton  mills   180 

Southampton,  docks  of 52 

harbor  of    52 

river  of   52 

South  terminal  States,  description  of 73 

Spain,  coal  of   153 

greatest  exports 214 


Spain,  greatest  imports  214 

mines  of    150 

national  counters  214 

Spanish  colonies,  number  of 197 

Speed  of  lake  steamers 81 

Spices,  definition  of   176 

Spice  family 176-177 

Spikes  of  caryota  palm  170 

Spinning-frame,  value  of 180 

Spokane,  description  of   91 

Spool  factories    .  .• 162 

Springfield,  Massachusetts   74 

Squashes,  kinds  of   175 

Stage-coach,  a  mail  carrier 34 

Station  of  life-saving  service,  description  of 66 

Station  patrol  of  coast 67 

Standard  coins  of  nations 212 

Standard  time,  by  whom  planned 210 

defined 210 

explained    210 

meridians  of 210 

when  adopted 21(X 

Stanovoi  mines,  Siberia 127 

Starches   ( corn ) ,  uses  of  166 

State  boundaries,  plan  of  study  of  233 

State  canals  70 

State  capitals    203 

St.  Clair  river  ship  canal 82 

St.  Clair  flats  described 82 

St.  Clair 'tunnel,  description  of 82 

States,  date  of  admission  of 203 

States  of  our  Union,  area  of  each 203 

population  of  each   203 

State  supplement   233-238 

Station  of  Peter  the  Great 134 

Statistics.  State  and  Territorial 203 

St.  Augustine  Light 62 

Steam  ferries  on  Lake  Baikal   126 

Steel,  a  barometer  of  business  154 

by  Bessemer  process 154 

by  cementation   154 

importation  of 154 

cars    26 

production  by  nations   226 

products  of 154 

world's  production  of 154 

uses  of 154 

Steel  mills 154 

Steamboat,  origin  of 42 

Steamboats  of  the  eighteenth  century 42 

Steamers,  imports  of  New  Zealand 106 

Steamer,  engines  of   45 

completing  after  launching 44 

construction  of    43 

passenger,  classified   48 

twin  screws  of 45 

stern  wheel 152 

Steamer  cargo  east    48 

Stevens's  steamboat   42 

Sticks  of  eggs   121 

St.  Isiiac's  cathedral,  description  of 134 

St.  Louis,  steamer,  christening  of 43 

comparative  measurements  of 45 

Storms,  general  movement  of 208 

St.  Marys,  rapids  of 84 

thousands  of  isles  of  84 

St.  Paul  a  fur  center  184 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


257 


St.  Poteisburg  chair-pushers    132 

commercial  importance  of 133 

ice-breaking  steamers  133 

quays  of 133 

Stratified  deposits  defined 149 

Strawberries,  every  month   174 

tame     174 

wild    . 174 

Strawberry   liarvests    174 

Strawberry,  importance  of  174 

Stretenska    124 

Strychnine    182 

Submarine  cable,  origin  of 35 

Sudd,  definition  of 188 

depth  of 188 

Sudd-cutting,  method  of   188 

Sudd-cutting  expeditions.  Major  Peake"s  account 188 

Suez  canal,  description  of 69 

a  shortened  route  to  India 69 

without  locks,  why?  70 

Sugar  beet,  introduced  by  Napoleon 171 

Sugar  cane,  native  of 168 

Sugar,  from  beet,  how  obtained 171 

from  cane,  how  made 168 

of  the  United  States,  classified 230 

plantation,  product  of 168 

Summer  seas 115 

Summit  station,  description  of 91 

Sunset  on  Lake  Superior   86 

Superior,  minerals  of 86 

Superintendent  of  foreign  mails 34,  205 

Sutherland  falls,  highest  in  the  world 107 

Sweaborg  fortress 137 

Sweden  and  Norway,  greatest  exports  of 214 

greatest  imports  of 214 

national  counters  of 214 

Sweet  potato,  not  a  potato 171 

in  Orient 171 

presented  to  Isabella  by  Columbus 171 

regions  of 171 

Switchback,  description  of 92 

Switzerland,  greatest  exports  of  214 

greatest  imports  of 214 

national  counters  of 214 

Sydney  botanical  garden,  description  of 113 

Sydne.y,  description  of 108 

Sydney  Heads 108 

Synoptic  charts  208 

Syracuse,  an  Erie  canal  city 76 

T. 

Tacoma,  a  "  Sound  "  center  of  business 94 

Tamarack  mines   155 

Tank  steamers 158 

Tanning  bark,  amount  iised 186 

names     186 

Tanning  process    186 

Tanning  vats   186 

Tapioca,  what  it  is    171 

Tar,  how  obtained 160 

Tasmania 108,  112 

Tasmanian  gum  trees 112 

Tasmanian  tin   113 

Tatoosk  island 97 

Tea  farms  in  the  United  States  ....'. 178 

Tea  in  Europe   178 


Tea,  kind  of  plant 178 

per  capita  consumption  of 17 

regions  of 17,  178 

where  first  grown   178 

Tea  leaves,  first  picking   178 

preparation  of   178 

second  picking 178 

third  picking 178 

Telegraph,  a  language  to  lightning 35 

first  in  Europe 35 

where  first  located   35 

Telegraph  and  cable,  aid  in  Queen's  Jubilee 36 

value  to  press 37 

Telegraphic  communication,  worth  to  business  world.  .35,  37 

Telegraph  lines  by  nations   229 

Telegraph  money-order  service 37 

Telegraph  tribute  to  President  McKinley 37 

Telephone,  extent  of  in  United  States   .\ 38 

origin  of   38 

worth  of  to  business  world 38 

Tennessee,  coal  of 152 

pig  iron  of   154 

Territories  of  the  United  States,  area  of  each 203 

capit.il  of  each    203 

date  of  organization  of  each 203 

largest  city  of  each 203 

population  of  each   203 

Texas  pig  iron    154 

Theophrastus,  Greek  scholar 151 

Thread-and-needle  plant    178 

Thread  mills    162 

Thermometer,  invention  of 207 

Thingvalla  Line    205 

Thursday  Island 114 

Tides  of  harbor   52 

Tientsin 124 

Tillamook  Rock  Light  Station 62 

Timber  belts  of  the  United  States 163 

Tin,  date  of  discovery 149 

where  found   157 

Tin  plate  mills 174 

Titusville  oil  well  158 

Tiumen-Irkutsk  canal,  description  of 127 

Tobacco,  a  source  of  revenue  to  nation 182 

effects  of  use  of 182 

history  of   182 

native  of 182 

Tobacco-giowing  States   182 

Tobacco-raising  nations  227 

Tokyo    120 

Toledo,  coal  and  clover  city  of  the  lakes 81 

Tomato,  as  a  garden  fruit 174 

history  of 174 

native   of    174 

Tomsk,  coal  beds  of   128 

hot  springs  of   128 

Tobolsk  river  128 

Tonnage,  of  Soo  Canal  and  London  compared 70 

of  Soo  canal  and  New  York  harbor  compared  ...  70 

of  Suez  and  Soo  canals  campared 70 

Toothpick  factories 162 

Torres  strait   114 

Townsville,  Queensland,  description  of 114 

Trading  post,  commerce  of 184 

Tramp  cargo  for  New  York 139 

Tramp  steamers    135 

Tramwavs.  when  first  used 24 


258 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


Trans-Atlantic  cargoes,  value  of 207 

Trans-Atlantic  mail  steamers    205 

Trans-Atlantic  steamers,  number  of 207 

Trans-Atlantic  sailing  vessels,  number  of 207 

Trans-Caucasus  Railroad    30 

Transportation,  of  coal,  cost  of 152 

value  of  to  commerce  31 

Trans-Siberian  Railroad  a  town-builder 29 

effect  in  Siberia 29 

vs.  Cairo  and  caravan  time-table 22 

history  of   28 

Trans-Siberian  train,  description  of 124 

Transvaal,  coal  of 153 

gold  of 150 

Transvaal  mines   156 

Tre-asuroi-  Walker's  report  to  Congress 57 

Trees  of  Canada   162 

Trinidad  Line   206 

Tripartite  treaty  of  1890 102 

Tripoli  caravan,  The 22 

Tripoli,  greatest  exports  of 217 

greatest  imports  of 217 

national  counters  of  217 

Trip  through  the  Pacific  96-122 

Trip  through  the  world's  greatest  jiyramids 225-229 

Tsitsika 124 

Tula 130 

Tundra,  definition  of 129 

Tunis,  greatest  exports  of 217 

greatest  imports  of 217 

national  counters  of   217 

Turkey,  greatest  exports  of 214 

greatest  imports  of 214 

national  counters  of 214 

Turkish  colonies,  number  of 197 

Turntable,  first  one  made   24 

Turpentine  farms   160 

Turpentine,  how  obtained 160 

Tutuila,  raising  United  States  flag  over   103 

Two-cent  postage  of  our  nation 205 

Two  Harbors  as  an  ore  port 154 

Two  Harbors  Light 86 

u. 

United  Fruit  Company  Line 206 

United  States,  area  of  203 

boot  and  shoe  product  of 187 

coal  area  of 152 

gold   of    156 

greatest  exports  of  214 

greatest  imports  of 214 

national  counters  of  214 

national  resources  of  229 

national  expenditures,  classified 229 

leather  manufactures,  importation  of 38 

lighthouses,  districts,  location  58 

lighthouse  service,  supervision  of 57 

population  of   203 

United  States  Bureau  of  Immigration,  work  of 144 

United  States  coast  lights.  1789 57 

United  States  colonies,  number  of 197 

United  States  life-saving  service  district,  classified  ....  64 

United  States  life-saving  system,  origin  of 64 

United  States  mail,  annual  amount  of 34 

United  States  delivery  carriers   34 

United  States  mail  connection,  when  founded 205 


United  States  mail  delivery  department,  where  estab- 
lished    ' 34 

United  States  postal  service,  employes  of 34 

United  States  storm-signal  flags   209 

United  States  weather  flags 209 

United  States  weather  service,  when  established 207 

Universal  Postal  Union,  when  formed   205 

Upolu  Island 102 

Uruguay,  greatest  exports  of 216 

greatest  imports  of 216 

national  counters  of 216 

Utah,  gold  of 156 

Utica,  an  Erie  canal  town 76 

description  of 76 

V. 

Van  Diemen's  Land   112 

Value  of  marine  property  under   weather   service  pro- 
tection    '. 208 

Vancouver's  Island 96 

Vasile  Island   133 

Veined  deposits  defined  149 

Vellum    186 

Venezuela,  greatest  exports  of 216 

greatest  imports  of 216 

national  counters  of 216 

Veronica    106 

Victoria,  minerals  of   110 

"  Viper,"  speed  of 141 

Virginia,  pig  iron  of 154 

Vladimir,  spindles  and  looms 131 

Vladivostok 123 

Volcano,  an  Alaskan 196 

Vulcanizing  process  of  Mr.  Goodyear 159 

w. 

Wallaby    185 

Waltham,  Massachusetts  74 

Warning  of  weather  service,  how  given 208 

Washington,  coal  of 152 

gold  of 156 

tide-land  crops 96 

timber  supply    :  .  .  . 95 

Watches  on  ship   52 

Watches  turned  back  to  mountain  time 90 

"  Water  babies  "  of  Hawaii 99 

Watt.  James,  and  steam  42 

Weather  of  nation  ranked 227 

Weather  of  the  United  States  classified 220 

Weather  bureau,  benefit  of  to  owners  of  inland  propert}',  208 

benefit  of  to  owners  of  marine  property 208 

machinery  of  reports  208 

maps,  where  made 208 

of  the  United  States 207-210 

Weather  map,  explanation  of 208 

first  daily  207 

how  obtained   210 

where  sent   210 

Weather  not  in  Hawaiian  language 100 

Weather  reports  of  Madison  and  Jefferson 207 

Weather  reports  on  July  Fourth,  1776   207 

Weather  service  aid  in  flood  of  1897  210 

Weather  service  and  rural  delivery 210 

Weather  service,  cost  of  210 

of  England 207 

of  France 207 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


259 


Weather  service  of  Holland   207 

value  of 210 

Wenatchee    92 

Welliugtou    107 

West  Indies,  greatest  exports  of   215 

greatest  imports  of 215 

national  counters  of • 215 

region  of  best  canes  168 

Westinghousc  works 154 

West  Point  Light 96 

Westport 107 

West  Virginia,  coal  of 152 

pig  iron  of   154 

steel  of    154 

Wheat  breakfast  foods    164 

Whaleback  freighters  82 

Wheat  by  freight  cheap  as  letters  by  mail 77 

Wheat,  native  of 164 

grading  of 1 64 

large  elevators  of   165 

per  capita  consumption  of 15 

production  by  nations   226 

when  brought  to  America 164 

where  now  grown   164 

Wheat  regions  of  Australia 113 

Wheat  regions  of  the  world 15 

Wheat  States  of  our  Union 165 

Whitby  island   96 

Whistling  buoy  59 

White  pepper  of  commerce 115 

White  Star  Line   205 

Whitney  cotton  gin,  effect  on  cotton 180 


Why  corn  meal  is  meeting  with  favor  in  Europe 20 

Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  pig  iron  of 154 

Wisconsin,  steel  of  154 

Wild  cat  185 

Wildest  spot  on  earth  62 

Wine  State  of  the  Union 172 

Winnipeg  a  fur  center  184 

Winter  sports  in  St.  Petersburg   132 

Wires  under  Hugh  river   35 

Wolf 185 

Wolverine 185 

Wombat    185 

Wool,  production  of  by  nations  226 

Worcester,  Massachusetts  74 

Wrought  iron,  how  made 153 

Wyoming,  coal  of  152 

^^ 

Yablonoi  mountains   126 

Yakutsk  province   127 

Yam,  regions  of 171 

Yawata  Maru,  description  of  113 

Yearly  consumption  of  eggs,  by  nations 20 

Yenisei  bridge  128 

Yerba  mat6,  a  tea 178 

how  obtained   178 

Yokohama,  commerce  of 120 

Z. 

Zinc,  date  of  discovery 149 

where  found  157 

Zuyder  Zee 138 


260 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


INDEX  TO  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Tvuge. 

A  Patriotic  Appeal  * 4 

School  Children  of  America   8 

Christiania's    Largest   Market  * 9 

Cheapside,  formerly  the  World's  Commercial  Center  *..  11 

A  Half-Mile  of  Pork  * 14 

Sugar  Levee,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana  * 16 

Picking  the  Famous  Uji  Tea,  Japan 16 

Drying  CoflFee.  Porto  Rico  * 17 

Blossom  and  Fruit  of  the  Cacao  Tree  * 19 

Husking  the  Crop  in  a  Cocoanut  Forest  * 20 

China's   Substitute  for   Railways  * 21 

Lumber  for  the  Gold  Belt,  Ouray  * 22 

One  of  the  Freight  Trains  that  Carries  China's  Home 

Commerce  * » 23 

The  Mountain  Carrier  * 23 

A  Mountain  Babv  * 24 

Grand  Central  S'tation,  N.  Y.* 24 

Train  of  Commerce '. 25 

De  Witt    Clinton    Express 27 

The  Empire  State  Express 27 

St.   Louis   LTnion  Depot 31 

Remarkable    Railway    Crossing 33 

Carpet-Bag  Express   ' 38 

First  Steamer  to  Cross  the  Atlantic 43 

Launching  of  the  St.  Louis 44 

Library,    StearAship    St.   Louis 45 

First  Cabin  Dining  Room 46 

Grand  Staircase,  Steamship  St.  Louis 47 

Steamship  St.  Louis 49 

First  Lighthouse  built  within  the  limits  of  the  United 

States 56 

Shoal   Light   Station 56 

"  Hen  and  Chickens  "  Light  Vessel 59 

Detroit  River  Light  Station 59 

Ohio   River   Post  Light 60 

Carysfort   Reef   Light   Station 60 

Sombrero  Key  Light  Station 61 

Rear  Beacon.  Paris  Island  Rouge 61 

Tillamook  Rock  Light  Station 62 

Life-Saving  Station  * 64 

Egyptian  Beef  for  the  Great  Ocean  Liners  * 69 

South  Terminal  Station 73 

Rounding  the  Nose,  Mohawk  Valley 76 

Map  of  the  Great  Lakes   78 

Mackinac  Island  —  Old  Fort 84 

Entering  the  Lock  —  Soo   Canal 85 

Canal  Lock,  Empty  85 

Loading  the  Great  Whaleback  Boat  * 87 

A  Modern  Harvester 89 

Profile  of  Moimtains  crossed  by  a  Switchback 92 

Twenty  Million  Feet  of  Lumber  in  one  Yard 93 

View  of  Seattle 93 

A  Washington  Sawlog 94 

The  Longest  Wheat  Warehouse  in  the  World 94 

A    Salmon    Catch 95 

Cape  Plattery  Light  Station 97 

Sea-Gulls  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  * 98 

Group  of  Natives  Eating  Poi  * 100 

Avenue  of  Royal   Palms  * 100 

A  Public  Laundry  and  Bath  * 116 

Pasig  River  Entrance.  Manila.  P.  I.* 116 

Making  the  Famous  Manila  Rope  * 117 

Drying  Hemp  on  the  Island  of  Cebu  * -j-z-j-^irish!-:^-  ^^^ 

Delights  of  Oriental  Farming  * ^.^^^TfTTX'^.'^l  8 

The  Right  Way  to  Filipino  Freedom  * .,; . .  .r.'o. .  r.>:.  -.'.  116 

Raft  of  Cocoanuts  * ,,. . i (.%•.»»/ (r.'*i%.. .  Jl» 


Paye. 

Hong  Kong  Bay,  China  * 120 

A  Semicircular  Bridge  * 121 

Bamboo  Avenue  * 121 

Fusiyama,  the  Sacred  Mountain  of  Japan  * 122 

Grand  Throne  of  the  Emperor's  Palace,  Sacred  to  the 

"  Son  of  Heaven,"  Forbidden  City  * 124 

Wheat  for  Export.  Odessa,  Russia  * 130 

Moskwa  River  and  "  Holy  Moscow."  Russia  * 131 

Bridge  at  St.  Petersburg,  Russia  * 134 

Xevskii  Prospekt.  St.  Petersburg.  Russia  * 135 

The  Fountains  from  Peterhof  Palace  * 136 

Great  Bridge  over  the  Elbe  * 137 

In  the  Market,  Hamburg,  Germany  * 138 

Most  Splendidly  Decorated  Bridge  in  the  World  * 139 

The  Famous  Drive,  Avenue  Champs  Elysees,  Paris* ....  140 

The  Boundless  Ocean,  from  Land's  End  * 141 

Great  Heaps  of  Wreckage,  Galveston  * 143 

United  States  Emigrant  Station,  Ellis  Island 145 

Moonlight  on  the  Waters   145 

New  York  City  from  the  Bay,  Night  View 146 

Mechanical  Methods  of  Handling  Coal 152 

$4,000,000  in  Gold  from  Nome  City,  in  Boxes 156 

Wheeling  Salt  to  the  Stacks,  Solinen,  Russia  * 157 

A  Washington  Sawmill   .' 161 

Grisly  Giant,  Mariposa  Grove,  California  * 163 

Papyrus,  Original  Source  of  Paper 164 

Largest  Hop  Market  in  the  World 165 

First  Reaper    165 

Union  Stock  Yards.  Chicago 166 

Barley  Harvest,  Palestine 167 

Tyrolese  Haymakers 168 

HajTuarket  in  Ireland 169 

Carrying  Grass  to  Market,  Cuba 160 

Cocoanut  Trees.  Florida   170 

Marketing  Bananas.  Jamaica 172 

Picking  Oranges,  California 173 

Pineapples  Growing.  Florida   175 

CofTee  Trees  in  Blossom.  Jamaica   177 

Picking  Cotton.  Georgia   180 

Native  Ropemaking,  Mexico 181 

Geranium  Wall,  California   183 

Plucking  the  Ostrich  * 187 

A  Swiss  Home  and  its  Home-Maker  * 191 

The  President's  Flag  * 191 

The  New  Holyoke  Dam  192 

Charming  Zermatt  and  the  Matterhorn  * 193 

"Old  Faithful  "  Geyser,  Yellowstone  Park  * 194 

Royal  Gorge,  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Arkansas  * 194 

Niagara  Falls    (in  summer  and  winter)  * 195 

Looking  through  the  great  Forth  Bridge  * 190 

Bogslof,  an  Alaskan  Volcano 196 

Scotland's    Pride  * 199 

United  States  Capitol,  Washington,  D.  C.  * 200 

Map  —  Comparative  Areas 201 

Salmon-Cannins  in  Alaska 205 

United  States  Weather  Flags  and  Storm  Signals 209 

The  Oregon  and  one  of  the  great  Dry  Docks  * 222 

Merchant  Marine  of  Important  Nations 224 

Only  a  Part  of  the  Family 233 

Too  much  Com  for  his  Cribs 233 

One  wav  to  Compound  Interest 234 

Harvesting  Third  Alfalfa  Crop   234 

Outline  Map  of  Kansas   235 

How  WTieat  grows  in  Kansas 236 

Growing  a  Bank  Account  in  Kansas 237 

Note — Star  denotes  that  cut  is  made  from  view  copyrighted  by  Under- 
wood &  Underwood,  Ottawa,  Kansas. 


VF  02797 


Oil 

1  !?>41 


•  1      *•.     X.  -'* 


